The Ark and the Cherubim

Description

The most important objects in the Hebrew Bible are a wooden box, styled in English "the ark" or "the ark of the covenant", and two statues of winged creatures, "the cherubim", that surmount it. Raanan Eichler attempts to understand these objects using the full gamut of data and tools available to the modern scholar. The study features an abundance of visual comparative material, much of it in colour, with a particularly close examination of the finds from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The author proposes solutions to a number of unsolved puzzles, such as the question of what cherubim looked like, and offers a new explanation of the nature of the ark and the cherubim, rejecting the prevailing scholarly view of them as having constituted an "empty throne" and footstool for the God of Israel. Rather, he argues, they constituted an empty frame, a unique cultic focus that surpassed all known systems in the ancient Near East in the extent of the efforts it represented to prevent an anthropomorphic conception of the deity in a cultic context. Cover Title Acknowledgements Table of Contents Abbreviations General Introduction 1. The Ark: Introduction 1.1 Uniqueness 1.2 Contexts 1.2.1 Pentateuch and Former Prophets 1.2.2 Chronicles and Other Books 1.2.3 The Versions 1.2.4 Absences 1.3 Status 1.3.1 Origin 1.3.2 Formal Position 1.3.3 Physical Position 1.3.4 Restrictedness 1.3.5 Psychological Importance 1.4 Designations 1.4.1 ’ărôn hā‘ēdût 1.4.2 ’ărôn hā’ĕlōhîm 1.4.3 ’ărôn yhwh 1.4.4 ’ărôn bərît yhwh 1.4.5 Other Designations 1.5 Name 1.5.1 Orthography 1.5.2 Vocalization 1.5.2.1 Masorah 1.5.2.2 Josephus 1.5.3 Gender 1.5.4 Cognates and Etymology 1.5.5 Translations 1.5.5.1 Greek Translators, Peshitta 1.5.5.2 Targumim 1.5.5.3 Vulgate 1.5.5.4 Medieval Translations 2. The Ark: Overall Form 2.1 Biblical Data 2.1.1 Priestly Account 2.1.2 Other Biblical Texts 2.1.3 Name 2.1.4 Conclusion: Chest 2.2 Other Interpretations 2.2.1 May and Garfinkel: Miniature Temple 2.2.1.1 May 2.2.1.2 Garfinkel 2.2.2 Critique of May and Garfinkel 2.2.2.1 General 2.2.2.2 May 2.2.2.3 Garfinkel 2.2.3 Morgenstern: Tent-Shrine 2.2.4 Critique of Morgenstern 2.3 Parallels 2.3.1 Egypt 2.3.2 Aegean 2.3.3 Levant and Mesopotamia 2.3.4 Discussion 3. The Ark: Details of Form 3.1 Acacia Wood Construction 3.1.1 Biblical Data 3.1.2 Parallels 3.1.3 Why Acacia? 3.2 Dimensions 3.2.1 Biblical Data 3.2.2 Parallels 3.3 Gold Overlay 3.3.1 Biblical Data 3.3.2 Parallels 3.4 zer 3.4.1 Biblical Data 3.4.2 What Is a zēr? Survey of Interpretation 3.4.2.1 Septuagint and Letter of Aristeas: Guilloche Molding 3.4.2.2 Aquila(?): Rim 3.4.2.3 Targumim, Vulgate, Rabbinic Exegetes: Crown 3.4.2.4 Modern Scholarship: Misc 3.4.3 New Proposal: Cavetto Cornice; Parallels 3.4.3.1 Ark 3.4.3.2 Table 3.4.3.3 Incense Altar 3.4.3.4 Conclusion 3.5 pə‘āmōt 3.5.1 Biblical Data 3.5.2 What Are pə‘āmōt? Survey of Interpretation 3.5.2.1 Septuagint et al.: Sides 3.5.2.2 Targumim et al.: Corners 3.5.2.3 Pseudo-Jonathan, Ibn Ezra, et al.: Feet 3.5.2.4 Nahmanides et al.: Lower Corners or Footsteps 3.5.3 Proposal: Feet; Parallels 3.5.3.1 The Word pa‘am 3.5.3.2 Problem with pə‘āmōt? as Feet 3.5.3.3 Proposed Solution 3.5.4 Coda: mṭbḥ 3.6 ṣəlā‘ōt 3.6.1 Biblical Data 3.6.2 What Are ṣəlā‘ōt? 3.6.3 Survey of Interpretation 3.6.3.1 Septuagint, Targumim, Vulgate: Nonspecific Sides 3.6.3.2 Josephus, Sforno: Long Sides 3.6.3.3 Kimhi: Lateral Sides 3.6.4 Proposal: Lateral Sides 4. The Ark: Carrying Apparatus 4.1 Rings 4.1.1 Biblical Data 4.1.2 Parallels 4.1.3 Number 4.1.4 Vertical Position 4.1.4.1 Survey of Interpretation 4.1.4.2 New Proposal: On Underside 4.1.5 Horizontal Alignment 4.1.5.1 Survey of Interpretation 4.1.5.2 Proposal: On Long Sides 4.2 Poles 4.2.1 Biblical Data 4.2.2 Parallels 4.2.3 Number 4.2.4 Method of Carriage 4.3 Inseparability of Poles 4.3.1 Biblical Data 4.3.2 Parallels 4.3.3 The Problem: Contradiction with Num 4:6 4.3.4 Survey of Interpretation 4.3.4.1 Saadiah Gaon et al.: wəśāmû Means “adjust” 4.3.4.2 Jacob of Orleans et al.: wəśāmû Means “put on shoulders” 4.3.4.3 Anonymous: wəśāmû Means “transfer to second set of rings” 4.3.4.4 Bekhor Shor: wəśāmû Is a One-Time Command 4.3.4.5 Joseph Kara: lō yāsūrû Does Not Preclude Intentional Removal 4.3.4.6 Ibn Ezra: lō yāsūrû Does Not Apply to Tabernacle Disassembly 4.3.4.7 Isaiah di Trani: Each Command Refers to Different Poles 4.3.4.8 Ehrlich et al.: No Solution 4.3.5 New Proposal: wəśāmû Means “draw out” 4.3.5.1 Semantics of wəśāmû 4.3.5.2 Parallels 4.3.5.3 Conclusion 5. The Ark: Contents 5.1 Biblical Data 5.1.1 Two Stone Tablets 5.1.2 The Covenant of YHWH 5.1.3 The edut 5.1.4 Discussion 5.2 Parallels 5.3 Other Purported Contents 5.3.1 New Testament: Manna, Staff 5.3.2 Talmud: Fragments, Scroll, Rods, Names 5.3.3 Other Traditions: Misc 5.3.4 Modern Scholars: Sacred Stones, Images 6. The Ark: Function 6.1 Introduction: Marker of the Divine Presence 6.1.1 Biblical Data 6.1.2 Parallels 6.1.3 The Problem 6.2 Survey of Interpretation 6.2.1 Reichel, Dibelius, et al.: Throne 6.2.2 Critique of Reichel, Dibelius, et al 6.2.3 Cassuto, Haran, et al.: Footstool 6.2.4 Critique of Cassuto, Haran, et al 6.2.5 Reimpell, de Vaux: Pedestal 6.2.6 Winckler, Hartmann, et al.: Coffin 6.2.7 Gressmann, Hoffmeier, Noegel: Procession Shrine or Bark 6.2.8 Metzger, Görg: Throne-Base 6.3 Proposal: Undefinable Marker 6.4 Other Portrayals of YHWH’s Presence in the Bible 6.4.1 The Temple 6.4.2 Beyond the Temple 7. The kappōret 7.1 Contexts 7.2 Separateness 7.3 Status 7.4 Name 7.4.1 Cognates and Etymology 7.4.2 Translations 7.4.2.1 Septuagint, Peshitta, Vulgate: Propitiatory 7.4.2.2 Septuagint (II), 4QtgLev, et al.: Lid 7.4.2.3 Vulgate (II): Oracle 7.4.2.4 Gressmann: Canopied Shrine 7.4.2.5 Tur-Sinai: Lions 7.4.2.6 Görg: Footrest 7.4.2.7 Gerleman: Mirror 7.4.3 Proposal: Lid 7.5 Form 7.5.1 Biblical Data 7.5.2 Parallels 7.6 Function 7.6.1 Biblical Data 7.6.2 Parallels 7.7 Explanation of Separateness 8. The Cherubim: Introduction 8.1 Contexts 8.2 Status 8.3 Name 8.3.1 Orthography 8.3.2 Cognates and Etymology 8.3.2.1 Midrashic Etymologies 8.3.2.2 West Semitic 8.3.2.3 Akkadian 8.3.2.4 Greek 8.3.2.5 Conclusion 9. The Cherubim: Other Contexts 9.1 Ezekiel 8–11 9.1.1 Introduction: What Are These Creatures? 9.1.2 Survey of Interpretation 9.1.2.1 Cooke: Just the Chebar Creatures 9.1.2.2 Eichrodt: The Ark Cherubim Combined with the Chebar Creatures 9.1.2.3 Zimmerli: The Ark Cherubim Becoming the Chebar Creatures 9.1.2.4 Houk: The Laver-Stand Cherubim Becoming the Chebar Creatures 9.1.2.5 Keel: YHWH’s Riding Cherub Combined with the Chebar Creatures 9.1.2.6 Greenberg: The Ark Cherubim alongside the Chebar Creatures 9.1.3 New Proposal: The Chebar Creatures Becoming the Ark Cherubim 9.1.4 1 Chronicles 28:18 9.1.5 Conclusion 9.2 2 Samuel 22:11 ≈ Psalm 18:11 9.2.1 Introduction 9.2.2 The Problem: Unsuitability of the Cherub Image 9.2.3 Proposed Solution 9.3 yōšēb hakkərūbîm 9.3.1 Introduction: What Does the Phrase Mean? 9.3.2 Survey of Interpretation 9.3.2.1 Septuagint et al.: “who is seated upon the cherubim” 9.3.2.2 Targum of Psalms et al.: “who dwells between the cherubim” 9.3.2.3 Sibylline Oracles: “who settles the cherubim” 9.3.2.4 Arnold, Wood: “the occupant of the cherubim” 9.3.2.5 Houtman: “who is enthroned amidst the cherubim” 9.3.2.6 Propp, Wood: “ruler of the cherubim” 9.3.3 New Proposal: “who dwells among the cherubim” 9.3.3.1 Grammatical Analysis 9.3.3.2 Identity of the Cherubim 9.3.3.3 yhwh ṣəbāôt 9.3.3.4 The Ark 9.4 Genesis 3:24 9.4.1 Introduction: A Forgotten Reading of the Verse 9.4.2 The Witnesses 9.4.3 Analysis 9.4.3.1 wyškn ’t hkrbym 9.4.3.2 mqdm lgn ‘dn 9.4.3.3 Conclusion 9.4.4 Evaluation 9.4.4.1 Similar Instances 9.4.4.2 Grammar and Style 9.4.4.3 Conceptions 10. The Cherubim: Overall Form 10.1 Methodological Remarks 10.2 Survey of Interpretation 10.2.1 Midrash Haggadol et al.: Winged Humans 10.2.2 Samuel b. Meir et al.: Birds 10.2.3 Bekhor Shor et al.: Winged Bovines 10.2.4 Dillmann: Griffins 10.2.5 Albright, de Vaux, et al.: Winged Sphinxes 10.2.6 Gilboa: Winged Snakes 10.2.7 Ibn Ezra et al.: Composite Creatures in General 10.3 Proposal: Winged (Adult) Humans 10.3.1 Upright Creatures 10.3.1.1 Tabernacle Cherubim 10.3.1.2 Temple Cherubim 10.3.1.3 Other Cherubim 10.3.2 Proportions of Temple Ark Cherubim 11. The Cherubim: Details of Form 11.1 Composition 11.1.1 Tabernacle Cherubim: Biblical Data 11.1.2 Tabernacle Cherubim: Parallels 11.1.3 Temple Cherubim: Biblical Data 11.1.4 Temple Cherubim: Parallels 11.1.5 Chronicles 11.2 Dimensions 11.2.1 Tabernacle Cherubim: Biblical Data 11.2.2 Tabernacle Cherubim: Parallels 11.2.3 Temple Cherubim: Biblical Data 11.2.4 Temple Cherubim: Parallels 11.2.5 Chronicles 11.3 Position and Posture 11.3.1 Tabernacle Cherubim: Biblical Data 11.3.1.1 Facing Each Other 11.3.1.2 ’el hakkappōret 11.3.1.3 Outspread Wings 11.3.1.4 ləma‘lâ 11.3.2 Tabernacle Cherubim: Parallels 11.3.2.1 Overview 11.3.2.2 Setting 11.3.2.3 ləma‘lâ 11.3.3 Temple Cherubim: Biblical Data 11.3.4 Temple Cherubim: Parallels 11.3.5 Chronicles 12. The Cherubim: Function 12.1 Survey of Interpretation 12.1.1 Schmidt, Albright, et al.: The Throne of YHWH 12.1.2 Critique of Schmidt, Albright, et al 12.1.2.1 Not the Stated Function 12.1.2.2 There Is No Throne 12.1.2.3 Cherubim Not Suitable for Throne 12.1.2.4 The Divine Presence Is underneath the Cherubim’s Wings 12.1.2.5 The Cherubim Are Secondary to the Ark and Its Contents 12.1.2.6 Rebuttal of Positive Arguments 12.1.3 Tur-Sinai, Kaufmann: Symbol of YHWH’s Chariot 12.1.4 Metzger: Firmament Bearers 12.2 Proposal: Winged Shelterers 12.2.1 Overview 12.2.2 Challenges 12.2.3 Cherubim and Wings in the Hebrew Bible General Conclusion Biblical Data Parallels Further Implications Historical Context Ideology Bibliography List of Figures Plates Index of Sources Index of Modern Persons Index of Subjects