Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice

Description

Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice, Fifth Edition  includes emerging trends and developments in food processing. The book has been fully updated to provide comprehensive, up-to-date technical information. For each food processing unit operation, theory and principles are first described, followed by equipment used commercially and its operating conditions, the effects of the operation on micro-organisms, and the nutritional and sensory qualities of the foods concerned. Part I describes basic concepts; Part II describes operations that take place at ambient temperature; Part III describes processing using heat; Part IV describes processing by removing heat; and Part V describes post-processing operations. This book continues to be the most comprehensive reference in the field, covering all processing unit operations in a single volume. The title brings key terms and definitions, sample problems, recommended further readings and illustrated processes. Title Page Contents Chapter 1 ---Properties-of-foods-and-principles-of_2022_Food-Processing-Techn Chapter-2---Raw-material-preparation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 2 Raw material preparation 2.1 Cleaning foods 2.1.1 Wet cleaning 2.1.1.1 Methods to remove insects and microorganisms 2.1.2 Dry methods of cleaning 2.1.2.1 Magnetic and electrostatic separators 2.1.2.2 Screens and shape sorters 2.2 Sorting and grading 2.2.1 Shape and size sorting 2.2.1.1 Theory 2.2.1.2 Equipment 2.2.2 Weight sorting 2.2.3 Colour and machine vision sorting and grading systems 2.2.4 Other types of grader 2.3 Peeling and coring 2.3.1 Coring References Chapter-3---Extraction-and-separation-of-food-co_2022_Food-Processing-Techno 3 Extraction and separation of food components 3.1 Centrifugation 3.1.1 Theory 3.1.2 Equipment 3.1.2.1 Separation of immiscible liquids 3.1.2.2 Centrifugal clarifiers 3.1.2.3 Desludging, decanting or dewatering centrifuges 3.2 Filtration 3.2.1 Theory 3.2.2 Equipment 3.2.2.1 Pressure filters 3.2.2.2 Vacuum filters 3.3 Expression 3.3.1 Theory 3.3.2 Equipment 3.3.2.1 Batch presses 3.3.2.2 Continuous presses 3.4 Extraction using solvents 3.4.1 Theory 3.4.2 Solvents 3.4.3 Equipment 3.4.3.1 Single-stage solvent extractors 3.4.3.2 Multistage solvent extractors 3.4.3.3 Continuous solvent extractors 3.4.4 Development of alternatives to organic solvents 3.4.4.1 Supercritical carbon dioxide Microwave-assisted extraction Ultrasound-assisted extraction Pulse electric field (PEF)–assisted extraction High pressure–assisted extraction Aqueous enzyme extraction 3.5 Membrane separation 3.5.1 Theory 3.5.1.1 Hydrostatic pressure systems 3.5.2 Equipment and applications 3.5.2.1 Reverse osmosis 3.5.2.2 Nanofiltration, ultrafiltration and microfiltration 3.5.2.3 Pervaporation 3.5.3 Types of membrane systems 3.5.3.1 Ion exchange and electrodialysis 3.6 Effects on foods and microorganisms 3.6.1 Effect on microorganisms References Chapter-4---Size-reduction_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 4 Size reduction 4.1 Size reduction of solid foods 4.1.1 Theory 4.1.2 Equipment 4.1.2.1 Cutting, slicing, dicing, mincing, shredding and flaking equipment 4.1.2.2 Milling equipment 4.1.2.3 Ball mills 4.1.2.4 Disc (or plate) mills 4.1.2.5 Hammer mills 4.1.2.6 Jet pulverising mills 4.1.2.7 Roller mills 4.1.2.8 Pulping equipment 4.1.3 Developments in size reduction technology 4.1.4 Effect on foods 4.1.4.1 Sensory characteristics 4.1.4.2 Nutritional value 4.1.5 Effect on microorganisms 4.2 Size reduction in liquid foods 4.2.1 Theory 4.2.2 Emulsifying agents and stabilisers 4.2.3 Equipment 4.2.3.1 Membrane emulsification 4.2.3.2 Pressure homogenisers 4.2.3.3 Rotor–stator (or high-shear) homogenisers and colloid mills 4.2.3.4 Ultrasonic homogenisers 4.2.4 Effect on foods 4.2.4.1 Viscosity or texture 4.2.4.2 Colour, aroma and nutritional value 4.2.5 Effect on microorganisms References Chapter-5---Mixing--forming--coating-and-encapsu_2022_Food-Processing-Techno 5 Mixing, forming, coating and encapsulation 5.1 Mixing 5.1.1 Theory of solids mixing 5.1.2 Theory of liquids mixing 5.1.3 Gas mixing and blending 5.1.4 Equipment 5.1.4.1 Mixers for dry powders or particulate solids 5.1.4.2 Mixers for low- or medium-viscosity liquids 5.1.4.3 Mixers for high-viscosity liquids and pastes 5.1.5 Effect on foods and microorganisms 5.2 Forming 5.2.1 Bread moulders 5.2.2 Pie, tart and biscuit formers 5.2.3 Confectionery moulders and depositors 5.2.3.1 Moulding equipment 5.2.3.2 Depositors 5.2.4 Cold extrusion 5.2.5 Three-dimensional food printing 5.2.5.1 Extrusion-based printing (or ‘material jetting’) 5.2.5.2 Inkjet printing 5.2.5.3 Powder bed fusion 5.2.5.4 Binder jetting 5.2.5.5 Other applications 5.2.5.6 Constraints 5.2.5.7 Four-dimensional food printing 5.3 Coating foods 5.3.1 Coating materials 5.3.1.1 Chocolate and compound coatings 5.3.1.2 Chocolate tempering 5.3.1.3 Compound coatings 5.3.1.4 Batters, powders and breadcrumbs 5.3.2 Equipment 5.3.2.1 Enrobers 5.3.2.2 Dusting or breading equipment 5.3.2.3 Pan coating 5.3.2.4 Hard coatings 5.3.2.5 Soft coatings 5.3.2.6 Chocolate coating 5.3.3 Microencapsulation 5.3.3.1 Liposomes 5.3.3.2 Nanoparticles 5.3.3.3 Packaging applications 5.3.4 Edible barrier coatings References Chapter-6---Food-biotechnology_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 6 Food biotechnology 6.1 Fermentation technology 6.1.1 Theory 6.1.1.1 Batch culture 6.1.1.2 Continuous culture 6.1.2 Equipment 6.1.2.1 Submerged cultures 6.1.2.2 Temperature control 6.1.2.3 pH control 6.1.2.4 Dissolved oxygen control 6.1.2.5 Agitation control 6.1.2.6 Foaming control 6.1.2.7 Control of medium addition and fermentation time 6.1.2.8 Displays and data logging 6.1.2.9 Automatic control of fermenters 6.1.2.10 Solid substrate fermentations 6.1.2.11 Control of temperature and aeration 6.1.2.12 Moisture content 6.1.2.13 Equipment 6.1.3 Commercial food fermentations 6.1.4 Effects on foods 6.1.4.1 Sensory characteristics 6.1.4.2 Nutritional value 6.1.4.3 Safety 6.2 Microbial enzymes 6.2.1 Novel enzyme technologies 6.3 Bacteriocins and antimicrobial ingredients 6.3.1 Chitin and chitosans 6.4 Functional foods 6.4.1 Health and nutrition claims and regulation 6.4.2 Probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic foods 6.5 Genetic modification 6.5.1 Genetically modified food crops 6.5.1.1 Legislation and public perceptions of genetically modified foods 6.5.1.2 Safety testing 6.5.2 Genetically modified microorganisms and their products 6.5.3 Marker-assisted selection 6.6 Nutritional genomics References Chapter-7---Minimal-processing-methods_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 7 Minimal processing methods 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Hurdle concepts 7.2 High pressure processing 7.2.1 Introduction 7.2.2 Theory 7.2.3 Equipment and operation 7.2.3.1 Operation 7.2.4 Process developments 7.2.4.1 Pulsed HPP systems 7.2.4.2 Combinations of HPP and other minimal processing technologies 7.2.5 Packaging 7.2.6 Effects on food components 7.2.7 Effects on enzymes 7.2.8 Inactivation of microorganisms 7.2.8.1 Effect on parasites and viruses 7.2.9 Regulation 7.2.10 Applications 7.2.10.1 Meat products 7.2.10.2 Seafoods 7.2.10.3 Dairy products 7.2.10.4 Fruit and vegetable products 7.2.10.5 Other potential applications 7.3 Irradiation 7.3.1 Introduction 7.3.2 Theory 7.3.2.1 Dose distribution 7.3.3 Equipment 7.3.4 Measurement of radiation dose 7.3.5 Detection of irradiated foods 7.3.6 Regulation 7.3.7 Applications 7.3.8 Effects on foods 7.3.8.1 Induced radioactivity and radiolytic products 7.3.8.2 Effects on nutritional and sensory properties 7.3.9 Effects on microorganisms 7.3.10 Effects on packaging 7.4 Ozone 7.4.1 Ozone production and use 7.4.2 Antimicrobial activity 7.4.3 Processing applications 7.4.3.1 Fruits and vegetables 7.4.3.2 Animal products 7.4.3.3 Dry foods 7.4.3.4 Packaging materials and equipment 7.4.3.5 Combined treatments 7.4.4 Limitations and potential toxicity 7.5 Power ultrasound 7.5.1 Theory 7.5.2 Processing equipment 7.5.3 Effect on microorganisms, enzymes and food components 7.6 PEF processing 7.6.1 Theory 7.6.2 Equipment and operation 7.6.3 Effects on microorganisms, enzymes and food components 7.6.4 Applications of PEF 7.6.5 Combinations of PEF and other treatments 7.6.6 Regulation 7.7 Pulsed light 7.7.1 Theory 7.7.2 Equipment 7.7.2.1 Applications 7.7.3 Effect on microorganisms, enzymes and food components 7.7.4 Regulation and use 7.8 Other minimal processing methods under development 7.8.1 Dense-phase carbon dioxide 7.8.1.1 DPCD in combination with other minimal processing techniques 7.8.1.2 Equipment 7.8.1.3 Effects on microorganisms and enzymes 7.8.1.4 Applications and effects on foods 7.8.2 Electric arc discharge processing and cold plasma 7.8.3 Oscillating magnetic fields 7.8.3.1 Equipment 7.8.4 Pulsed X-rays References Chapter-8 Part-III---Processing-by-application-of-heat_2022_Food-Processing-Technology Part III Processing by application of heat Chapter-8---Blanching_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 8 Blanching 8.1 Theory 8.2 Equipment 8.2.1 Steam blanchers 8.2.2 Hot-water blanchers 8.2.3 Newer blanching methods 8.3 Effect on foods 8.4 Effect on microorganisms References Chapter-9---Industrial-cooking_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 9 Industrial cooking 9.1 Cooking using moist heat 9.1.1 Equipment 9.1.1.1 Jacketed kettles 9.1.1.2 Bratt pans 9.1.1.3 Steamers 9.2 Sous vide cooking 9.2.1 Theory 9.2.2 Processing 9.2.3 Effects on foods 9.2.3.1 Meat 9.2.3.2 Fish and shellfish 9.2.3.3 Fruits and vegetables 9.3 Cooking using dry heat 9.3.1 Equipment 9.3.1.1 Stir fryers 9.3.1.2 Ovens References Chapter-10---Pasteurisation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 10 Pasteurisation 10.1 Theory 10.2 Equipment 10.2.1 Pasteurisation of packaged foods 10.2.2 Pasteurisation of unpackaged liquids 10.2.3 Novel pasteurisation methods 10.2.3.1 Low temperature, short time (LTST) technology 10.2.3.2 Volumetric microwave heating 10.2.3.3 Ultra high-pressure homogenisation 10.2.3.4 Microfiltration 10.2.3.5 Pulsed UV light 10.3 Effects on foods References Chapter-11---Heat-sterilisation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 11 Heat sterilisation 11.1 In-container sterilisation 11.1.1 Theory 11.1.1.1 Heat resistance of microorganisms 11.1.1.2 Rate of heat penetration 11.1.1.3 Process validation 11.1.1.4 Calculation of process times 11.1.1.5 Formula (or mathematical) method 11.1.1.6 Improved general (graphical) method 11.1.2 Retorting 11.1.2.1 Heating by saturated steam 11.1.2.2 Heating by hot water 11.1.2.3 Heating by flames 11.1.3 Equipment 11.1.3.1 Control of retorts 11.2 Ultrahigh temperature/aseptic processes 11.2.1 Theory 11.2.2 Processing 11.2.3 Equipment 11.2.3.1 Direct heating methods 11.2.3.2 Indirect heating methods 11.2.3.3 Other heating methods 11.3 Effects on foods 11.3.1 Canning 11.3.1.1 Colour 11.3.1.2 Flavour and aroma 11.3.1.3 Texture 11.3.1.4 Nutritional value 11.3.2 UHT processing 11.3.2.1 Colour and flavour 11.3.2.2 Texture 11.3.2.3 Nutritional value References Chapter-12---Evaporation-and-distillation_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 12 Evaporation and distillation 12.1 Evaporation 12.1.1 Theory 12.1.1.1 Temperature difference between the steam and boiling liquid 12.1.1.2 Boundary films 12.1.1.3 Deposits on heat transfer surfaces Mass and heat balances 12.1.2 Improving the economics of evaporation 12.1.2.1 Reducing energy consumption 12.1.2.2 Multiple-effect evaporation 12.1.2.3 Vapour recompression 12.1.2.4 Reducing losses of concentrate or product quality 12.1.3 Equipment 12.1.3.1 Natural circulation evaporators 12.1.3.2 Forced circulation evaporators 12.1.3.3 Plate evaporators 12.1.3.4 Tubular evaporators 12.1.3.5 Mechanical (or agitated) thin-film evaporators 12.1.3.6 Condensers 12.1.3.7 Control of evaporators 12.1.4 Effect on foods and microorganisms 12.2 Distillation 12.2.1 Theory 12.2.1.1 Ideal mixtures 12.2.2 Equipment 12.2.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms References Chapter-13---Dehydration_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 13 Dehydration 13.1 Theory 13.1.1 Drying using heated air 13.1.1.1 Psychrometrics 13.1.1.2 Mechanism of drying 13.1.1.3 Constant rate period 13.1.1.4 Falling rate period 13.1.1.5 Calculation of drying rate 13.1.2 Drying using heated surfaces 13.2 Equipment 13.2.1 Hot-air dryers 13.2.1.1 Bin dryers 13.2.1.2 Cabinet (or tray) dryers 13.2.1.3 Conveyor dryers 13.2.1.4 Electrohydrodynamic drying 13.2.1.5 Explosion puff drying 13.2.1.6 Fluidised-bed dryers 13.2.1.7 Impingement dryers 13.2.1.8 Kiln dryers 13.2.1.9 Pneumatic dryers 13.2.1.10 Pulse combustion dryers 13.2.1.11 Rotary dryers 13.2.1.12 Spray dryers 13.2.1.13 Sun drying and solar dryers 13.2.1.14 Tunnel dryers 13.2.1.15 Ultrasonic and acoustic dryers 13.2.2 Heated-surface (or contact) dryers 13.2.2.1 Ball dryer 13.2.2.2 Drum (or roller) dryers 13.2.2.3 Vacuum band, vacuum shelf and vacuum puff dryers 13.2.2.4 Vertically agitated dryers 13.3 Control of dryers 13.4 Types of powders 13.4.1 Agglomeration 13.5 Rehydration 13.6 Effects on foods and microorganisms 13.6.1 Sensory properties 13.6.1.1 Texture 13.6.1.2 Flavour and aroma 13.6.1.3 Colour 13.6.2 Nutritional value 13.6.3 Effects on microorganisms References Chapter-14---Smoking_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 14 Smoking 14.1 Theory 14.1.1 Constituents in smoke 14.1.1.1 Flavour and aroma components 14.1.1.2 Preservative components and health concerns 14.1.2 Tasteless smoke 14.1.3 Liquid smoke 14.2 Processing 14.2.1 Equipment 14.3 Effects on foods 14.3.1 Organoleptic quality 14.3.2 Nutritional value 14.3.3 Health concerns 14.4 Effects on microorganisms References Chapter-15---Baking-and-roasting_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 15 Baking and roasting 15.1 Theory 15.2 Equipment 15.2.1 Direct and indirect heating 15.2.2 Energy-saving features 15.2.3 Batch and semicontinuous ovens 15.2.3.1 Deck and rack ovens 15.2.3.2 Rotary ovens 15.2.4 Continuous ovens 15.2.4.1 Tunnel ovens 15.2.4.2 Tray ovens 15.2.4.3 Impingement ovens 15.2.4.4 Spiral ovens 15.2.5 Control of ovens 15.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms 15.3.1 Changes to sensory characteristics 15.3.1.1 Texture 15.3.1.2 Flavour and aroma 15.3.1.3 Colour 15.3.2 Changes to nutritional value 15.3.3 Effects on microorganisms 15.3.3.1 Packaging References Chapter-16---Extrusion-cooking_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 16 Extrusion cooking 16.1 Theory 16.1.1 Properties of ingredients 16.1.1.1 Structure-forming materials 16.1.1.2 Other ingredients 16.1.2 Extruder-operating characteristics 16.2 Equipment 16.2.1 Single-screw extruders 16.2.2 Twin-screw extruders 16.2.3 Control of extruders 16.3 Applications 16.3.1 Confectionery products 16.3.2 Cereal products 16.3.2.1 Snackfoods 16.3.2.2 Breakfast cereals 16.3.2.3 Crispbread 16.3.3 Protein-based foods 16.3.3.1 Plant-based meat analogues 16.3.3.2 Weaning foods 16.3.3.3 Meat and fish products 16.4 Effect on foods and microorganisms 16.4.1 Sensory characteristics 16.4.2 Nutritional value 16.4.3 Effects on microorganisms References Chapter-17---Frying_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 17 Frying 17.1 Theory 17.1.1 Heat and mass transfer 17.1.1.1 Heat transfer 17.1.1.2 Frying time and temperature 17.1.1.3 Mass transfer 17.1.2 Types of oils used for frying 17.1.3 Oil absorption 17.1.3.1 Oil turnover 17.2 Equipment 17.2.1 Atmospheric fryers 17.2.2 Vacuum and pressure fryers 17.2.3 Control of fryer operation, oil filtration and heat recovery 17.2.3.1 Oil filtration 17.2.3.2 Heat recovery and control of emissions 17.3 Effects of frying on oils 17.4 Effects of frying on foods 17.4.1 Changes to food texture, colour and flavour 17.4.2 Nutritional changes and health concerns 17.4.2.1 Toxic compounds 17.4.2.2 Acrylamide 17.5 Effects of frying on microorganisms References Chapter-18---Dielectric--ohmic-and-infrared-hea_2022_Food-Processing-Technol 18 Dielectric, ohmic and infrared heating 18.1 Dielectric heating 18.1.1 Theory 18.1.2 Equipment 18.1.2.1 Microwave heaters 18.1.2.2 Radio frequency heaters 18.1.3 Applications 18.1.3.1 Dehydration 18.1.3.2 Pasteurisation and sterilisation 18.1.3.3 Thawing, melting and tempering 18.1.3.4 Baking 18.1.3.5 Other applications 18.1.4 Effects on foods and microorganisms 18.2 Ohmic heating 18.2.1 Theory 18.2.2 Equipment and applications 18.2.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms 18.3 Infrared heating 18.3.1 Theory 18.3.2 Equipment and applications 18.3.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms References Chapter-19 Part-IV---Processing-by-the-removal-of-heat_2022_Food-Processing-Technology Part IV Processing by the removal of heat Chapter-19---Heat-removal-by-refrigeration_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 19 Heat removal by refrigeration 19.1 Theory 19.1.1 Refrigerants and cryogens 19.1.1.1 Refrigerants 19.1.1.2 ‘Fourth generation’ refrigerants 19.1.1.3 Cryogens 19.1.2 The refrigeration cycle 19.1.3 Magnetic refrigeration 19.2 Equipment 19.2.1 Control of mechanical refrigerators 19.2.2 Temperature monitoring 19.2.2.1 Time–temperature indicators References Chapter-20---Cooling-and-chilling_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 20 Cooling and chilling 20.1 Cooling crops and carcasses 20.1.1 Theory 20.1.1.1 Cold storage 20.1.1.2 Cooling carcasses 20.1.2 Equipment 20.2 Chilling 20.2.1 Equipment 20.2.1.1 Mechanical chillers 20.2.1.2 Cryogenic chillers 20.2.1.3 Other methods of chilling 20.2.2 Chilling of processed foods 20.2.3 Cook–chill systems 20.2.4 Effects on sensory and nutritional qualities of foods 20.2.5 Effects on microorganisms 20.3 Cold storage References Chapter-21---Freezing_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 21 Freezing 21.1 Theory 21.1.1 Ice crystal formation 21.1.2 Solute concentration 21.1.3 Calculation of freezing time 21.1.4 Thawing 21.2 Equipment 21.2.1 Mechanical freezers 21.2.1.1 Refrigerated air freezers 21.2.1.2 Refrigerated liquid freezers 21.2.1.3 Refrigerated surface freezers 21.2.2 Cryogenic freezers 21.2.2.1 Hydrofluidisation and pumpable ice slurries 21.2.3 Developments in freezing technologies 21.2.3.1 High-pressure freezing and thawing 21.2.3.2 Ultrasound-assisted freezing 21.2.3.3 Magnetic freezing 21.2.3.4 Dehydrofreezing and cryoprotectants 21.2.3.5 Electrostatic field–assisted freezing and radio frequency freezing 21.2.4 Frozen storage 21.2.5 Thawing 21.3 Effects on foods 21.3.1 Freezing 21.3.1.1 Volume changes 21.3.2 Frozen storage 21.3.2.1 Recrystallisation 21.3.3 Thawing 21.4 Effects on microorganisms References Chapter-22---Freeze-drying-and-freeze-concentra_2022_Food-Processing-Technol 22 Freeze drying and freeze concentration 22.1 Freeze drying 22.1.1 Theory 22.1.1.1 Rate of heat transfer 22.1.1.2 Rate of mass transfer 22.1.2 Equipment 22.1.2.1 Contact (or conduction) freeze dryers 22.1.2.2 Radiant freeze dryers 22.1.2.3 Microwave-assisted freeze dryers 22.1.2.4 Spray freeze drying 22.1.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms 22.2 Freeze concentration 22.2.1 Theory 22.2.2 Equipment 22.2.3 Effects on foods and microorganisms References Chapter-23 Part-V---Postprocessing-operations_2022_Food-Processing-Technology Part V Postprocessing operations Chapter-23---Packaging_2022_Food-Processing-Technology 23 Packaging 23.1 Theory 23.1.1 Factors affecting the selection of a packaging material 23.1.1.1 Light 23.1.1.2 Temperature 23.1.1.3 Moisture and gases 23.1.1.4 Grease resistance 23.1.1.5 Resistance to microorganisms, insects, animals and soils 23.1.1.6 Mechanical strength 23.1.1.7 Tamper-evident/resistant features 23.1.2 Interactions between packaging and foods 23.2 Types of packaging materials 23.2.1 Textiles and wood 23.2.2 Metal 23.2.2.1 Three-piece cans 23.2.2.2 Two-piece cans 23.2.2.3 Aerosol cans 23.2.2.4 Other metal packaging 23.2.3 Glass 23.2.4 Flexible films 23.2.4.1 Single films 23.2.4.2 Cellulose 23.2.4.3 Ethylene–vinyl acetate or alcohol 23.2.4.4 Polyamides (or nylons) 23.2.4.5 Polybutylene adipate terephthalate 23.2.4.6 Polyethylene (commonly ‘polythene’) 23.2.4.7 Polyethlene naphthalate 23.2.4.8 Polyethylene terephthalate 23.2.4.9 Polypropylene 23.2.4.10 Polystyrene and high-impact polystyrene 23.2.4.11 Polyvinyl chloride 23.2.4.12 Polyvinylidene chloride 23.2.4.13 Coated films 23.2.4.14 Copolymers 23.2.4.15 Laminated films 23.2.4.16 Coextruded films 23.2.5 Rigid and semirigid plastic containers 23.2.6 Paper and board 23.2.6.1 Types of papers 23.2.6.2 Coated papers 23.2.6.3 Paperboard cartons 23.2.6.4 Adhesives 23.2.6.5 Moulded paper pulp containers 23.2.7 Combined packaging systems 23.3 Packaging materials for modified atmosphere packaging 23.3.1 Effect on microorganisms 23.4 Printing 23.4.1 Barcodes and other markings 23.5 Packaging developments 23.5.1 Edible and biodegradable materials 23.5.1.1 Polymers from natural materials 23.5.1.2 Polymers from renewable monomers 23.5.1.3 Polymers produced by microbial fermentation 23.5.1.4 Additives 23.5.1.5 Edible protective superficial layers 23.5.2 Nanotechnology 23.5.3 Active and intelligent packaging 23.5.3.1 Moisture control 23.5.3.2 Gas control 23.5.3.3 Antimicrobial packaging and freshness indicators 23.5.3.4 Temperature monitoring and control Temperature control Tracing, tracking and tamper-evident packaging 23.6 Environmental and regulatory considerations 23.6.1 Environmental issues 23.6.1.1 Life cycle analysis 23.6.1.2 Reductions in use of energy and CO2 emissions 23.6.1.3 Reduction in weight of materials 23.6.1.4 Reuse and recycling Recycling Composting Incineration 23.6.2 Regulatory aspects References Chapter-24---Filling-and-sealing-of-container_2022_Food-Processing-Technolog 24 Filling and sealing of containers 24.1 Rigid and semirigid containers 24.1.1 Filling 24.1.1.1 Liquid fillers 24.1.1.2 Solids filling 24.1.2 Sealing 24.1.2.1 Glass and plastic containers 24.1.2.2 Metal containers 24.1.2.3 Paperboard cases and cartons 24.2 Flexible containers 24.2.1 Form-fill-seal equipment 24.2.1.1 Vertical form-fill-seal 24.2.1.2 Horizontal form-fill-seal 24.2.2 Tray, pot and carton sealing 24.3 Twist-wrapping 24.4 Shrink-wrapping and stretch-wrapping 24.5 Tamper-evident and tamper-resistant closures 24.6 Labelling 24.7 Checkweighing 24.8 Metal detection 24.8.1 Detecting other contaminants References Further reading Chapter-25---Materials-handling--storage-and-dist_2022_Food-Processing-Techn 25 Materials handling, storage and distribution 25.1 Materials handling 25.1.1 Solids handling methods 25.1.1.1 Conveyors 25.1.1.2 Elevators 25.1.2 Liquid handling methods 25.1.2.1 Pumps 25.1.2.2 Control valves 25.2 Storage 25.2.1 Ambient storage 25.2.1.1 Warehouse operations 25.2.2 Distribution warehousing 25.2.3 Modified and controlled atmosphere storage 25.2.3.1 Modified atmosphere storage/controlled atmosphere storage equipment References Further reading Glossary--acronyms-and-symbols_2022_Food-Processing-Technology Glossary, acronyms and symbols Index_2022_Food-Processing-Technology Index