Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles

Description

Title Page......Page 3 Copyright Page......Page 4 Dedication......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Preface to the Fifth Edition......Page 32 About the Authors......Page 35 Part 1: Transport Processes: Momentum, Heat, and Mass......Page 36 1.1A Introduction......Page 37 1.1B Fundamental Transport Processes......Page 38 1.1C Classification of Separation Processes......Page 39 1.2 SI System of Basic Units Used in This Text and Other Systems......Page 40 1.2A SI System of Units......Page 41 1.2C English FPS System of Units......Page 42 1.2D Dimensionally Homogeneous Equations and Consistent Units......Page 43 1.3B Mole Units and Weight or Mass Units......Page 44 1.4A Pressure......Page 46 1.4B Ideal Gas Law......Page 47 1.4C Ideal Gas Mixtures......Page 48 1.4D Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point of Liquids......Page 49 1.5A Conservation of Mass......Page 50 1.5B Simple Material Balances......Page 51 1.5C Material Balances and Recycle......Page 53 1.5D Material Balances and Chemical Reaction......Page 54 1.6B Heat Capacity......Page 57 1.6C Latent Heat and Steam Tables......Page 61 1.6D Heat of Reaction......Page 63 1.7B Heat Balances......Page 65 1.8B Numerical Integration and Simpson’s Rule......Page 72 1.9 Chapter Summary......Page 73 2.1 Introduction......Page 84 2.2A Force, Units, and Dimensions......Page 86 2.2B Pressure in a Fluid......Page 88 2.2C Head of a Fluid......Page 93 2.2D Devices to Measure Pressure and Pressure Differences......Page 94 2.3 Chapter Summary......Page 100 3.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 104 3.1A Newton’s Law of Viscosity......Page 105 3.1B Momentum Transfer in a Fluid......Page 108 3.1C Viscosities of Newtonian Fluids......Page 109 3.2B Laminar and Turbulent Flow......Page 111 3.2C Reynolds Number......Page 112 3.3 Chapter Summary......Page 115 4.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 120 4.1A Introduction and Simple Mass Balances......Page 121 4.1B Control Volume for Balances......Page 123 4.1C Overall Mass-Balance Equation......Page 124 4.1D Average Velocity to Use in Overall Mass Balance......Page 129 4.2A Introduction......Page 130 4.2B Derivation of Overall Energy-Balance Equation......Page 131 4.2C Overall Energy Balance for a Steady-State Flow System......Page 133 4.2D Kinetic-Energy Velocity Correction Factor α......Page 135 4.2E Applications of the Overall Energy-Balance Equation......Page 137 4.2F Overall Mechanical-Energy Balance......Page 140 4.2G Bernoulli Equation for Mechanical-Energy Balance......Page 145 4.3A Derivation of the General Equation......Page 149 4.3B Overall Momentum Balance in a Flow System in One Direction......Page 152 4.3C Overall Momentum Balance in Two Directions......Page 156 4.3D Overall Momentum Balance for a Free Jet Striking a Fixed Vane......Page 160 4.4A Introduction......Page 162 4.4B Shell Momentum Balance Inside a Pipe......Page 163 4.4C Shell Momentum Balance for Falling Film......Page 166 4.5 Chapter Summary......Page 170 5.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 184 5.1A Velocity Profiles in Pipes......Page 185 5.1B Pressure Drop and Friction Loss in Laminar Flow......Page 187 5.1C Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in Turbulent Flow......Page 191 5.1D Pressure Drop and Friction Factor in the Flow of Gases......Page 196 5.1E Effect of Heat Transfer on the Friction Factor......Page 198 5.1F Friction Losses in Expansion, Contraction, and Pipe Fittings......Page 199 5.1G Friction Loss in Noncircular Conduits......Page 208 5.1H Entrance Section of a Pipe......Page 209 5.1I Selection of Pipe Sizes......Page 211 5.2A Introduction and Basic Equation for Flow in Pipes......Page 212 5.2B Isothermal Compressible Flow......Page 213 5.2C Adiabatic Compressible Flow......Page 216 5.3A Pitot Tube......Page 217 5.3B Venturi Meter......Page 220 5.3C Orifice Meter......Page 223 5.3D Flow-Nozzle Meter......Page 226 5.3E Variable-Area Flow Meters (Rotameters)......Page 227 5.3F Other Types of Flow Meters......Page 228 5.3G Flow in Open Channels and Weirs......Page 229 5.4 Chapter Summary......Page 230 6.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 240 6.1A Definition of Drag Coefficient for Flow Past Immersed Objects......Page 241 6.1B Flow Past a Sphere, Long Cylinder, and Disk......Page 244 6.2 Flow in Packed Beds......Page 247 6.3 Flow in Fluidized Beds......Page 255 6.4 Chapter Summary......Page 263 7.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 270 7.1B Pumps......Page 271 7.1C Gas-Moving Machinery......Page 279 7.1D Equations for Compression of Gases......Page 281 7.2A Purposes of Agitation......Page 285 7.2B Equipment for Agitation......Page 286 7.2C Flow Patterns in Agitation......Page 289 7.2E Power Used in Agitated Vessels......Page 290 7.2F Agitator Scale-Up......Page 294 7.2G Mixing Times of Miscible Liquids......Page 299 7.2I Special Agitation Systems......Page 303 7.2J Mixing of Powders, Viscous Materials, and Pastes......Page 305 7.3 Chapter Summary......Page 307 8.1A Introduction......Page 314 8.1B Types of Time Derivatives and Vector Notation......Page 315 8.1C Differential Equation of Continuity......Page 318 8.2A Derivation of Equations of Momentum Transfer......Page 322 8.2B Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Varying Density and Viscosity......Page 325 8.2C Equations of Motion for Newtonian Fluids with Constant Density and Viscosity......Page 328 8.3B Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow Between Parallel Plates......Page 330 8.3C Differential Equations of Continuity and Motion for Flow in Stationary and Rotating Cylinders......Page 335 8.4 Chapter Summary......Page 343 9.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 348 9.1B Time-Independent Fluids......Page 349 9.1D Viscoelastic Fluids......Page 351 9.1E Laminar Flow of Time-Independent Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 352 9.2A Friction Losses in Contractions, Expansions, and Fittings in Laminar Flow......Page 357 9.2B Turbulent Flow and Generalized Friction Factors......Page 358 9.3 Velocity Profiles for Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 360 9.4 Determination of Flow Properties of Non-Newtonian Fluids Using a Rotational Viscometer......Page 365 9.5 Power Requirements in Agitation and Mixing of Non-Newtonian Fluids......Page 368 9.6 Chapter Summary......Page 370 10.1A Introduction......Page 376 10.2 Stream Function......Page 377 10.3 Differential Equations of Motion for Ideal Fluids (Inviscid Flow)......Page 378 10.4 Potential Flow and Velocity Potential......Page 379 10.5 Differential Equations of Motion for Creeping Flow......Page 385 10.6 Chapter Summary......Page 386 11.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 391 11.1A Boundary-Layer Flow......Page 392 11.1B Boundary-Layer Separation and the Formation of Wakes......Page 393 11.1C Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory......Page 394 11.2A Nature and Intensity of Turbulence......Page 397 11.2B Turbulent Shear or Reynolds Stresses......Page 399 11.2C Prandtl Mixing Length......Page 400 11.2D Universal Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow......Page 402 11.3A Integral Momentum Balance for Boundary-Layer Analysis......Page 405 11.4 Chapter Summary......Page 409 12.1A Joule, Calorie, and Btu......Page 413 12.1B Heat Capacity......Page 414 12.1C Latent Heat and Steam Tables......Page 418 12.1D Heat of Reaction......Page 420 12.2B Heat Balances......Page 422 12.3A Introduction to Steady-State Heat Transfer......Page 429 12.3B Conduction as a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer......Page 431 12.3C Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction......Page 432 12.3D Thermal Conductivity......Page 434 12.4A Convection as a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer......Page 437 12.4B Convective Heat-Transfer Coefficient......Page 438 12.5 Radiation......Page 439 12.5A Radiation, a Basic Mechanism of Heat Transfer......Page 440 12.5B Radiation to a Small Object from Its Surroundings......Page 443 12.6A Plane Walls in Series......Page 444 12.6B Conduction Through Materials in Parallel......Page 447 12.6C Combined Radiation and Convection Heat Transfer......Page 448 12.7 Chapter Summary......Page 450 13.1A Conduction Through a Flat Slab or Wall (Some Review of Chapter 12)......Page 462 13.1B Conduction Through a Hollow Cylinder......Page 464 13.1C Multilayer Cylinders......Page 467 13.1D Conduction Through a Hollow Sphere......Page 469 13.2A Combined Convection, Conduction, and Overall Coefficients......Page 470 13.2B Log Mean Temperature Difference and Varying Temperature Drop......Page 474 13.2C Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylinder......Page 478 13.2D Contact Resistance at an Interface......Page 480 13.3A Conduction with Internal Heat Generation......Page 481 13.4A Introduction and Graphical Method for Two-Dimensional Conduction......Page 484 13.4B Shape Factors in Conduction......Page 486 13.5A Analytical Equation for Conduction......Page 488 13.5B Finite-Difference Numerical Methods......Page 490 13.6 Chapter Summary......Page 499 14.1A Introduction......Page 509 14.1B Derivation of the Unsteady-State Conduction Equation......Page 510 14.2A Basic Equation......Page 512 14.2B Equation for Different Geometries......Page 513 14.2C Total Amount of Heat Transferred......Page 515 14.3A Introduction and Analytical Methods......Page 516 14.3B Unsteady-State Conduction in a Semi-infinite Solid......Page 518 14.3C Unsteady-State Conduction in a Large Flat Plate......Page 522 14.3D Unsteady-State Conduction in a Long Cylinder......Page 528 14.3F Unsteady-State Conduction in Two- and Three-Dimensional Systems......Page 531 14.3G Charts for Average Temperature in a Plate, Cylinder, and Sphere with Negligible Surface Resistance......Page 536 14.4A Unsteady-State Conduction in a Slab......Page 538 14.4B Boundary Conditions for Numerical Method for a Slab......Page 541 14.4C Other Numerical Methods for Unsteady-State Conduction......Page 551 14.5 Chilling and Freezing of Food and Biological Materials......Page 553 14.5B Chilling of Food and Biological Materials......Page 554 14.5C Freezing of Food and Biological Materials......Page 557 14.6A Introduction......Page 561 14.6B Derivation of Differential Equation of Energy Change......Page 562 14.6C Special Cases of the Equation of Energy Change......Page 565 14.7 Chapter Summary......Page 567 15.1A Introduction to Convection (Review)......Page 580 15.1C Buckingham Method......Page 583 15.2A Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory in Heat Transfer......Page 586 15.2B Approximate Integral Analysis of the Thermal Boundary Layer......Page 590 15.2C Prandtl Mixing Length and Eddy Thermal Diffusivity......Page 591 15.3A Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Laminar Flow Inside a Pipe......Page 593 15.3B Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Flow Inside a Pipe......Page 594 15.3C Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Transition Flow Inside a Pipe......Page 598 15.3D Heat-Transfer Coefficient for Noncircular Conduits......Page 599 15.3F Liquid-Metals Heat-Transfer Coefficient......Page 602 15.4A Introduction......Page 604 15.4B Flow Parallel to a Flat Plate......Page 605 15.4C Cylinder with Axis Perpendicular to Flow......Page 606 15.4D Flow Past a Single Sphere......Page 607 15.4E Flow Past Banks of Tubes or Cylinders......Page 608 15.4F Heat Transfer for Flow in Packed Beds......Page 612 15.5A Introduction......Page 613 15.5B Natural Convection from Various Geometries......Page 615 15.6A Boiling......Page 623 15.6B Condensation......Page 629 15.7A Introduction......Page 636 15.7B Heat Transfer Inside Tubes......Page 637 15.8A Heat Transfer in Agitated Vessels......Page 641 15.8B Scraped-Surface Heat Exchangers......Page 645 15.8C Extended Surface or Finned Exchangers......Page 647 15.9 Chapter Summary......Page 653 16.1 Types of Exchangers......Page 667 16.2 Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference Correction Factors......Page 671 16.3 Heat-Exchanger Effectiveness......Page 675 16.4 Fouling Factors and Typical Overall U Values......Page 680 16.5 Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger......Page 682 16.6 Chapter Summary......Page 687 17.1A Introduction and Basic Equation for Radiation......Page 692 17.1B Radiation to a Small Object from Its Surroundings......Page 695 17.1C Effect of Radiation on the Temperature Measurement of a Gas......Page 696 17.2A Introduction and Radiation Spectrum......Page 698 17.2B Derivation of View Factors in Radiation for Various Geometries......Page 702 17.2D View Factors and Gray Bodies......Page 715 17.2E Radiation in Absorbing Gases......Page 718 17.3 Chapter Summary......Page 724 18.1A Similarity of Mass, Heat, and Momentum Transfer Processes......Page 731 18.1C Fick’s Law for Molecular Diffusion......Page 734 18.1D General Case for Diffusion of Gases A and B plus Convection......Page 738 18.2A Diffusion Coefficients for Gases......Page 740 18.2B Diffusion Coefficients for Liquids......Page 748 18.2C Prediction of Diffusivities in Liquids......Page 751 18.2D Prediction of Diffusivities of Electrolytes in Liquids......Page 754 18.2E Diffusion of Biological Solutes in Liquids......Page 757 18.3A Convective Mass-Transfer Coefficient......Page 762 18.4A Different Types of Fluxes and Fick’s Law......Page 763 18.4B Equation of Continuity for a Binary Mixture......Page 765 18.5 Chapter Summary......Page 767 19.1A Equimolar Counterdiffusion in Gases......Page 780 19.1B Special Case for A Diffusing Through Stagnant, Nondiffusing B......Page 783 19.1C Diffusion Through a Varying Cross-Sectional Area......Page 787 19.1D Multicomponent Diffusion of Gases......Page 791 19.2B Equations for Diffusion in Liquids......Page 793 19.3A Introduction and Types of Diffusion in Solids......Page 796 19.3B Diffusion in Solids Following Fick’s Law......Page 797 19.3C Diffusion in Porous Solids That Depends on Structure......Page 803 19.4A Introduction......Page 805 19.4B Knudsen Diffusion of Gases......Page 806 19.4C Molecular Diffusion of Gases......Page 808 19.4D Transition-Region Diffusion of Gases......Page 809 19.4E Flux Ratios for Diffusion of Gases in Capillaries......Page 811 19.4F Diffusion of Gases in Porous Solids......Page 814 19.5 Diffusion in Biological Gels......Page 815 19.6A Special Cases of the General Diffusion Equation at Steady State......Page 818 19.7A Derivation of Equations for Numerical Methods......Page 825 19.7B Equations for Special Boundary Conditions for Numerical Method......Page 827 19.8 Chapter Summary......Page 834 20.1A Derivation of a Basic Equation......Page 852 20.1B Diffusion in a Flat Plate with Negligible Surface Resistance......Page 855 20.1C Unsteady-State Diffusion in Various Geometries......Page 857 20.2A Unsteady-State Diffusion and Reaction in a Semi-Infinite Medium......Page 862 20.3B Unsteady-State Numerical Methods for Diffusion......Page 864 20.3C Boundary Conditions for Numerical Methods for a Slab......Page 866 20.4 Chapter Summary......Page 872 21.1A Introduction to Convective Mass Transfer......Page 877 21.1B Types of Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 878 21.1C Mass-Transfer Coefficients for the General Case of A and B Diffusing and Convective Flow Using Film Theory......Page 884 21.1D Mass-Transfer Coefficients under High Flux Conditions......Page 885 21.2B Dimensional Analysis for Convective Mass Transfer......Page 888 21.3A Dimensionless Numbers Used to Correlate Data......Page 890 21.3B Analogies among Mass, Heat, and Momentum Transfer......Page 891 21.3C Derivation of Mass-Transfer Coefficients in Laminar Flow......Page 894 21.3D Mass Transfer for Flow Inside Pipes......Page 898 21.3E Mass Transfer for Flow Outside Solid Surfaces......Page 900 21.4A Introduction......Page 911 21.4B Equations for Mass Transfer to Small Particles......Page 912 21.5A Laminar Flow and Boundary-Layer Theory in Mass Transfer......Page 915 21.5B Prandtl Mixing Length and Turbulent Eddy Mass Diffusivity......Page 919 21.5C Models for Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 920 21.6 Chapter Summary......Page 922 Part 2: Separation Process Principles......Page 935 22.1A Phase Rule and Equilibrium......Page 936 22.1B Gas–Liquid Equilibrium......Page 937 22.1C Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact......Page 939 22.1D Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for a Gas–Liquid System......Page 940 22.1E Countercurrent Multiple-Contact Stages......Page 942 22.1F Analytical Equations for Countercurrent Stage Contact......Page 947 22.1G Introduction and Equilibrium Relations......Page 950 22.1H Concentration Profiles in Interphase Mass Transfer......Page 951 22.1I Mass Transfer Using Film Mass-Transfer Coefficients and Interface Concentrations......Page 953 22.1J Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients and Driving Forces......Page 958 22.2B Equipment for Absorption and Distillation......Page 964 22.3 Pressure Drop and Flooding in Packed Towers......Page 968 22.4 Design of Plate Absorption Towers......Page 976 22.5A Introduction to Design of Packed Towers for Absorption......Page 979 22.5B Simplified Design Methods for Absorption of Dilute Gas Mixtures in Packed Towers......Page 988 22.5C Design of Packed Towers Using Transfer Units......Page 996 22.6A Calculating the Efficiency of Random-Packed and Structured Packed Towers......Page 1002 22.6B Estimation of Efficiencies of Tray and Packed Towers......Page 1003 22.7 Absorption of Concentrated Mixtures in Packed Towers......Page 1006 22.8A Experimental Determination of Film Coefficients......Page 1013 22.8B Correlations for Film Coefficients......Page 1014 22.8C Predicting Mass-Transfer Film Coefficients......Page 1015 22.9A Heat Effects in Absorption......Page 1018 22.9B Simplified Design Method......Page 1019 22.10 Chapter Summary......Page 1022 23.1A Vapor Pressure of Water......Page 1036 23.1B Humidity and a Humidity Chart......Page 1037 23.1C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures......Page 1044 23.1D Wet Bulb Temperature......Page 1046 23.2 Introduction and Types of Equipment for Humidification......Page 1048 23.3A Theory and Calculations for Cooling-Water Towers......Page 1050 23.3B Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using Film Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 1054 23.3C Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using Overall Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 1056 23.3D Minimum Value of Air Flow......Page 1059 23.3E Design of Water-Cooling Tower Using the Height of a Transfer Unit......Page 1060 23.4 Chapter Summary......Page 1061 24.1A Introduction......Page 1068 24.1B Types of Filtration Equipment......Page 1069 24.2A Introduction to the Basic Theory of Filtration......Page 1077 24.2B Filtration Equations for Constant-Pressure Filtration......Page 1081 24.2C Filtration Equations for Constant-Rate Filtration......Page 1090 24.3B Classification of Membrane Processes......Page 1091 24.4B Models for Microfiltration......Page 1093 24.5A Introduction......Page 1095 24.5C Flux Equations for Ultrafiltration......Page 1096 24.5D Effects of Processing Variables in Ultrafiltration......Page 1099 24.6A Introduction......Page 1100 24.6B Flux Equations for Reverse Osmosis......Page 1104 24.6C Effects of Operating Variables......Page 1109 24.6D Concentration Polarization in Reverse-Osmosis Diffusion Model......Page 1111 24.6F Types of Equipment for Reverse Osmosis......Page 1112 24.6G Complete-Mixing Model for Reverse Osmosis......Page 1113 24.7A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes......Page 1115 24.7C Types of Equipment for Dialysis......Page 1118 24.7D Hemodialysis in an Artificial Kidney......Page 1119 24.8 Chapter Summary......Page 1120 25.1A Series Resistances in Membrane Processes......Page 1131 25.1B Types of Membranes and Permeabilities for Separation of Gases......Page 1132 25.1C Types of Equipment for Gas-Permeation Membrane Processes......Page 1135 25.1D Introduction to Types of Flow in Gas Permeation......Page 1138 25.2A Basic Equations Used......Page 1140 25.2B Solution of Equations for Design of a Complete-Mixing Case......Page 1142 25.2C Minimum Concentration of Reject Stream......Page 1147 25.3A Derivation of Equations......Page 1148 25.3B Iteration Solution Procedure for Multicomponent Mixtures......Page 1149 25.4A Derivation of the Basic Equations......Page 1152 25.4B Procedure for Design of Cross-Flow Case......Page 1155 25.5A Concentration Gradients in Membranes......Page 1160 25.5B Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent Flow in Dense-Phase Symmetric Membranes......Page 1161 25.5C Solution of Countercurrent Flow Equations in Dense-Phase Symmetric Membranes......Page 1164 25.5D Derivation of Equations for Countercurrent Flow in Asymmetric Membranes......Page 1165 25.5E Derivation of Equations for Cocurrent Flow in Asymmetric Membranes......Page 1167 25.5F Effects of Processing Variables on Gas Separation......Page 1168 25.6A Countercurrent Flow......Page 1172 25.6B Short-Cut Numerical Method......Page 1174 25.6C Use of a Spreadsheet for the Finite-Difference Numerical Method......Page 1181 25.6D Calculation of Pressure-Drop Effects on Permeation......Page 1182 25.7 Chapter Summary......Page 1186 26.1A Phase Rule and Raoult’s Law......Page 1196 26.1B Boiling-Point Diagrams and x-y Plots......Page 1197 26.2A Equipment for Distillation......Page 1200 26.2B Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact for Vapor–Liquid System......Page 1204 26.3A Introduction......Page 1206 26.3B Relative Volatility of Vapor–Liquid Systems......Page 1207 26.3C Equilibrium or Flash Distillation......Page 1208 26.3D Simple Batch or Differential Distillation......Page 1210 26.3E Simple Steam Distillation......Page 1213 26.4A Introduction to Distillation with Reflux......Page 1214 26.4B McCabe–Thiele Method of Calculation for the Number of Theoretical Stages......Page 1217 26.4C Total and Minimum Reflux Ratio for McCabe–Thiele Method......Page 1228 26.4D Special Cases for Rectification Using the McCabe–Thiele Method......Page 1233 26.5 Tray Efficiencies......Page 1242 26.5B Types of Tray Efficiencies......Page 1243 26.5C Relationship Between Tray Efficiencies......Page 1245 26.6A Flooding Velocity and Diameter of Tray Towers......Page 1246 26.6B Condenser and Reboiler Duties Using the McCabe–Thiele Method......Page 1249 26.7A Enthalpy–Concentration Data......Page 1250 26.7B Distillation in the Enriching Section of a Tower......Page 1254 26.7C Distillation in the Stripping Section of a Tower......Page 1256 26.8A Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1263 26.8B Equilibrium Data in Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1265 26.8C Boiling Point, Dew Point, and Flash Distillation......Page 1268 26.8E Total Reflux for Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1270 26.8F Shortcut Method for the Minimum Reflux Ratio for Multicomponent Distillation......Page 1275 26.8G Shortcut Method for Number of Stages at Operating Reflux Ratio......Page 1276 26.9 Chapter Summary......Page 1280 27.1A Introduction to Extraction Processes......Page 1297 27.1B Equilibrium Relations in Extraction......Page 1298 27.2A Single-Stage Equilibrium Extraction......Page 1302 27.3B Mixer–Settlers for Extraction......Page 1306 27.3C Spray Extraction Towers......Page 1307 27.3D Packed Extraction Towers......Page 1308 27.3E Perforated-Plate (Sieve-Tray) Extraction Towers......Page 1314 27.3F Pulsed Packed and Sieve-Tray Towers......Page 1315 27.3G Mechanically Agitated Extraction Towers......Page 1316 27.4A Introduction......Page 1318 27.4B Continuous Multistage Countercurrent Extraction......Page 1319 27.4C Countercurrent-Stage Extraction with Immiscible Liquids......Page 1326 27.4D Design of Towers for Extraction......Page 1329 27.4E Design of Packed Towers for Extraction Using Mass-Transfer Coefficients......Page 1331 27.5 Chapter Summary......Page 1336 28.1A Introduction......Page 1345 28.1B Physical Properties of Adsorbents......Page 1346 28.1C Equilibrium Relations for Adsorbents......Page 1347 28.2 Batch Adsorption......Page 1350 28.3A Introduction and Concentration Profiles......Page 1351 28.3B Breakthrough Concentration Curve......Page 1353 28.3D Capacity of Column and Scale-Up Design Method......Page 1354 28.3E Basic Models for Predicting Adsorption......Page 1359 28.3F Processing Variables and Adsorption Cycles......Page 1360 28.4A Introduction and Ion-Exchange Materials......Page 1361 28.4B Equilibrium Relations in Ion Exchange......Page 1362 28.4C Use of Equilibrium Relations and Relative-Molar-Selectivity Coefficients......Page 1363 28.4E Capacity of Columns and Scale-Up Design Method......Page 1367 28.5 Chapter Summary......Page 1370 29.1A Crystallization and Types of Crystals......Page 1375 29.1B Equilibrium Solubility in Crystallization......Page 1377 29.1C Yields, Material, and Energy Balances in Crystallization......Page 1378 29.1D Equipment for Crystallization......Page 1382 29.2B Nucleation Theories......Page 1385 29.2C Rate of Crystal Growth and the ΔL Law......Page 1386 29.2D Particle Size Distribution of Crystals......Page 1388 29.2E Model for Mixed Suspension–Mixed Product Removal Crystallizer......Page 1389 29.3B Particle Size Measurement......Page 1396 29.3C Energy and Power Required in Size Reduction......Page 1397 29.3D Equipment for Particle Size Reduction......Page 1400 29.4 Chapter Summary......Page 1403 30.0 Chapter Objectives......Page 1410 30.1B Theory of Particle Movement Through a Fluid......Page 1411 30.1C Hindered Settling......Page 1417 30.1E Differential Settling and Separation of Solids in Classification......Page 1420 30.1F Sedimentation and Thickening......Page 1425 30.1G Equipment for Settling and Sedimentation......Page 1427 30.2A Introduction......Page 1430 30.2B Forces Developed in Centrifugal Separation......Page 1431 30.2C Equations for Rates of Settling in Centrifuges......Page 1434 30.2E Centrifugal Filtration......Page 1442 30.2F Gas–Solid Cyclone Separators......Page 1445 30.3 Chapter Summary......Page 1448 31.1A Leaching Processes......Page 1456 31.1B Preparation of Solids for Leaching......Page 1457 31.1C Rates of Leaching......Page 1458 31.1D Types of Equipment for Leaching......Page 1462 31.2 Equilibrium Relations and Single-Stage Leaching......Page 1465 31.2A Equilibrium Relations in Leaching......Page 1466 31.2B Single-Stage Leaching......Page 1469 31.3A Introduction and Operating Line for Countercurrent Leaching......Page 1471 31.3B Variable Underflow in Countercurrent Multistage Leaching......Page 1473 31.4 Chapter Summary......Page 1478 32.1A Purpose......Page 1483 32.1B Processing Factors......Page 1484 32.2A General Types of Evaporators......Page 1486 32.2B Methods of Evaporator Operations......Page 1490 32.3 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators......Page 1493 32.4A Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators......Page 1495 32.4C Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions......Page 1499 32.4D Enthalpy–Concentration Charts of Solutions......Page 1501 32.5A Introduction......Page 1505 32.5B Temperature Drops and Capacity of Multiple-Effect Evaporators......Page 1506 32.5C Calculations for Multiple-Effect Evaporators......Page 1507 32.5D Step-by-Step Calculation Methods for Triple-Effect Evaporators......Page 1508 32.6B Surface Condensers......Page 1518 32.6C Direct-Contact Condensers......Page 1519 32.7A Introduction and Properties of Biological Materials......Page 1520 32.7B Fruit Juices......Page 1521 32.8A Introduction......Page 1522 32.8B Mechanical Vapor-Recompression Evaporator......Page 1523 32.9 Chapter Summary......Page 1524 33.1A Purposes of Drying......Page 1532 33.2A Tray Dryer......Page 1533 33.2B Vacuum-Shelf Indirect Dryers......Page 1534 33.2C Continuous Tunnel Dryers......Page 1535 33.2E Drum Dryers......Page 1536 33.2G Drying Crops and Grains......Page 1537 33.3A Vapor Pressure of Water......Page 1539 33.3B Humidity and Humidity Chart......Page 1540 33.3C Adiabatic Saturation Temperatures......Page 1546 33.3D Wet Bulb Temperature......Page 1548 33.4A Introduction......Page 1551 33.4B Experimental Data of Equilibrium Moisture Content for Inorganic and Biological Materials......Page 1552 33.4C Bound and Unbound Water in Solids......Page 1554 33.5 Rate-of-Drying Curves......Page 1555 33.5B Rate of Drying Curves for Constant-Drying Conditions......Page 1556 33.5C Drying in the Constant-Rate Period......Page 1559 33.5E Moisture Movements in Solids During Drying in the Falling-Rate Period......Page 1560 33.6A Method for Using an Experimental Drying Curve......Page 1563 33.6B Method Using Predicted Transfer Coefficients for Constant-Rate Period......Page 1565 33.6C Effect of Process Variables on a Constant-Rate Period......Page 1569 33.7A Method Using Numerical Integration......Page 1571 33.7B Calculation Methods for Special Cases in Falling-Rate Region......Page 1573 33.8B Derivation of the Equation for Convection, Conduction, and Radiation......Page 1575 33.9 Drying in the Falling-Rate Period by Diffusion and Capillary Flow......Page 1579 33.9B Liquid Diffusion of Moisture in Drying......Page 1580 33.9C Capillary Movement of Moisture in Drying......Page 1583 33.9D Comparison of Liquid Diffusion and Capillary Flow......Page 1584 33.10A Through-Circulation Drying in Packed Beds......Page 1588 33.10B Tray Drying with Varying Air Conditions......Page 1596 33.10C Material and Heat Balances for Continuous Dryers......Page 1597 33.10D Continuous Countercurrent Drying......Page 1601 33.11A Introduction......Page 1604 33.11B Derivation of Equations for Freeze-Drying......Page 1605 33.12A Introduction......Page 1610 33.12B Thermal Death-Rate Kinetics of Microorganisms......Page 1611 33.12C Determination of Thermal Process Time for Sterilization......Page 1613 33.12D Sterilization Methods Using Other Design Criteria......Page 1618 33.12E Pasteurization......Page 1619 33.13 Chapter Summary......Page 1621 Part 3: Appendixes......Page 1635 Appendix A.1 Fundamental Constants and Conversion Factors......Page 1636 Appendix A.2 Physical Properties of Water......Page 1642 Appendix A.3 Physical Properties of Inorganic and Organic Compounds......Page 1656 Appendix A.4 Physical Properties of Foods and Biological Materials......Page 1683 Appendix A.5 Properties of Pipes, Tubes, and Screens......Page 1688 Appendix A.6 Lennard-Jones Potentials as Determined from Viscosity Data......Page 1692 Notation......Page 1695 Index......Page 1714