Hydrogen Economy, The: Fundamentals, Technology, Economics

Description

The "Hydrogen Economy" is very broad subject ranging from the potential use of hydrogen for domestic use to the mass production of hydrogen replacing coal, natural gas (LNG) and conventional transport fuels. For any given project, there are many alternatives to consider for each stage of making, storing and transporting hydrogen. The book aims to assist proponents, and financiers of hydrogen projects to identify the optimum alternatives and identify hurdles and approaches to overcome them. This book attempts to describe an optimum approach to implement and its cost. It sets out to identify hurdles to implementation which may not be apparent to those entering the field for the first time. The book covers the various means and costs of production from fossil fuels (with carbon capture) – blue hydrogen – electrolysis – green hydrogen – or biomass. The book covers hydrogen storage as liquid or compressed gas and transport, through pipelines as liquid or by an intermediary fluid such as ammonia or a hydrocarbon. The book also discusses the production and costs of hydrogen delivery at the user end of a logistics chain. It also compares the relative energy value of energy delivered hydrogen versus the current suite of conventional fuels. CONTENTS Disclaimer Introduction, Preamble, Executive Summary Summary Observations Production Blue hydrogen Green hydrogen Storage and transport Competitive position Chapter 1 The Market for Hydrogen The Use of Hydrogen in the Process Industries Safety Oil Refineries Naphtha Isomerization Naphtha and Distillate Hydro-Treating Hydro-Cracking The Naphtha Reformer The Refinery Hydrogen Market Petrochemicals Naphtha Hydro-Treating Hydrogen Use in Down-Stream Operations Naphtha Reforming and Aromatics Benzene Toluene Xylenes Oxo-alcohols The Use of Hydrogen in the Chemicals Industry Methanol (CH3OH) Methanol and the hydrogen economy Ammonia Ammonia manufacture Importance of ammonia in the hydrogen economy The Use of Hydrogen in Reducing Metal Ores Direct Reduction of Iron Ore Shaft reduction process Iron ore fines reduction process Role of DRI in the hydrogen economy Observations Chapter 2 Methods of Hydrogen Production The Production of Hydrogen from Coal Gasification Solid gas reactions Gas phase reactions Process optimisation Pyrolysis Gasifier Types Moving bed gasifier Fluid-bed gasifier Entrained-bed gasifiers Texaco slurry entrained-bed gasifier (GE gasifier) Comparative performance of gasifiers The Production of Hydrogen from Natural Gas Steam Reforming Maximising Hydrogen Yield Partial Oxidation Auto-Thermal Reforming The Production of Pure Hydrogen The WGS Process Water-gas Water-gas-shift Hydrogen Purification Methanation Separation Pressure-swing adsorption (PSA) Membrane separation systems Cryogenic separation Hydrogen Production from the Hydrocarbon Process Industry Hydrogen Yield from Steam Cracking Hydrogen from Propane and Butane De-Hydrogenation Processes Hydrogen production Carbon Black Hydrogen Production from the Chlor-Alkali Industry Hydrogen Production Hydrogen in Natural Gas Observations Chapter 3 The Cost of Hydrogen Production From Fossil Fuels Hydrogen Production from Natural Gas The Concept of a Central Production Facility Cost of Hydrogen Production from a Central Facility from Natural Gas By-Product Credits Gas Price Capital Cost Greenhouse Emissions from Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) Impact of Scale of Operation Hydrogen from Coal Cost of Hydrogen Production from Coal Sensitivity to Coal Price Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse Emissions in the Production of Hydrogen Carbon dioxide capture from dilute, impure streams Carbon dioxide capture from concentrated, relatively pure streams Membrane Systems Adsorption Systems Absorption Systems Cryogenic Processes Cost of carbon dioxide removal from hydrogen process streams Carbon Dioxide Geo-Sequestration — Carbon Capture and Storage Greenfield geo-sequestration Development Status Great plains synfuels — Dakota gasification company (North Dakota, USA) Norwegian CCS — Sleipner gas field CCS and Snohvit CCS Gorgon gas project (Barrow Island, Western Australia) Case Study Waste-heat recovery Fan (compressor) Flue-gas desulphurisation MEA carbon dioxide extraction Compression, pipeline and CCS wells Discussion Chapter 4 The Production of Hydrogen From Renewable Sources The Production of Hydrogen by Electrolysis Electrolysis Overview of Cell Operation Water The cathode The anode The DC supply Impact of temperature on required EMF Impact of pressure on required EMF Membrane Compression of Hydrogen High-Temperature Electrolysis Comparison of Performance of Different Cells Other Approaches Impact of Solar Radiation Variation on Electrolysis Economics of Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis Production costs by electrolysis Capital costs Power costs Estimate of hydrogen production costs by PEM electrolysis cell Photochemical Water Splitting Hydrogen Production from Biomass Biomass Logistics Biomass Quality Process Flow Sheet for Biomass Gasification Economics of Biomass to Hydrogen Review Small-Scale Hydrogen Production Larger Scale Hydrogen Production Hydrogen from Coal and Biomass Chapter 5 Hydrogen Storage and Transport Hydrogen Storage in Cylinders Transport of Hydrogen as Liquid Hydrogen Liquefaction Ortho and para hydrogen Storage of Liquid Hydrogen Storage in LNG-type tanks Storage in Salt Caverns Storage as Hydrides Hydrogen Compression Hydrogen Transport by Pipelines Use of Existing Natural Gas Pipelines Heating value Wobbe index Methane number Pipeline Costs Cost of Hydrogen Storage and Transport Cost of Hydrogen Storage Compressed gas Liquid hydrogen Underground caverns Summary The Cost of Hydrogen Transport Cost of transporting compressed hydrogen by truck Cost of transporting liquid hydrogen by truck Cost of transporting liquid hydrogen by barge Hydrogen transport by pipeline Summary Chapter 6 The Mass Shipping of Hydr Cost of Ships and Shipping The Shipping Fleet Contract shipping costs Build-up of shipping costs Cost of Shipping Liquid Hydrogen Hydrogen liquefaction Shipping liquid hydrogen Regasification of Liquid Hydrogen Adding value in regasification facilities Regasification cost Summary Delivering Hydrogen as Compressed Gas Transport of Hydrogen as an Intermediate Transport of Hydrogen as a Naphthene (The Spera Process) Process thermodynamics Process flow for toluene to MCH Process flow for MCH to toluene Process Economics Shipping Toluene and MCH Summary Transport of Hydrogen as Ammonia Economics of Ammonia Synthesis Economics of ammonia production by steam methane reforming/gasification Economics of ammonia production by water electrolysis Ammonia Shipping Cost The Cracking of Ammonia to Nitrogen and Hydrogen Summary Chapter 7 Competitive Position of Hydrogen Versus Fossil Fuels Fuel Cells Low to Moderate Temperature Fuel Cells (ambient to 200°C) Alkaline fuel cells Proton exchange membrane fuel cells Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC) High Temperature Fuel Cells (650°C–1000°C) Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) Fuel Cell Applications Current Use of Fossil Fuels in Fuel Cells Manufactures of fuel cell vehicles Competition for Stationary Applications Competition for Vehicle Applications Competitive Position Hydrogen and Fossil Fuels in Vehicles Taxes and Local Premiums Relative Engine Efficiencies The Price of Conventional Fossil Fuels Chapter 8 Case Studies for the Hydrogen Economy Case Study 1: Hydrogen Production and Use in a Domestic Setting Case Study 2: Hydrogen from Large-Scale Solar Power Option 1: Hydrogen Delivery by Pipeline Option 2: Hydrogen Delivered by Existing Pipeline Option 3: Delivery of Power from Remote Solar Farm by Transmission Line to Central Hydrogen Production Facility Comparison to Conventional Fuels Case Study 3: Remotely Produced Hydrogen Shipped to North East Asia Option 1: Shipping Hydrogen as Liquid and Regasification Option 2: Shipping Hydrogen as LNG Option 3: Transport as Ammonia to Japan Summary Case Study 4: Hydrogen from Victorian Ligniteto North East Asia Appendices A1. Properties of Hydrogen A2: Comparison of Hydrogen to Other Fuels A3: Conversion Factors A4: Cost Indices A5: Location Factors A6: Relation of Delivered Equipment to Final Capital Cost A7: Methodology for Economic Analysis Capital Costs (C) Capital Recovery Factors Fixed Operating Costs (O) Working capital Labour, maintenance and administrative costs Catalysts and chemicals Other operating costs A8: Indexed Fuel and Construction Costs A9: Accuracy of Cost Estimates Concept or Scoping Study Feasibility Study Bankable Feasibility Study Front-End Engineering and Design A10: Abbreviations Index