Supercapacitors and Their Applications. Fundamentals, Current Trends, and Future Perspectives

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Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Table of Contents Editor Biographies Contributors Preface Chapter 1 Historical Perspectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Capacitance of a Capacitor 1.3 Working Principle of a Capacitor 1.4 Energy Stored in Capacitor 1.5 Types of Capacitors 1.5.1 Electrostatic Capacitor 1.5.1.1 Air Capacitor 1.5.1.2 Ceramic Capacitor 1.5.1.3 Mica Capacitor 1.5.1.4 Paper/Plastic Film Capacitor 1.5.2 Electrolytic Capacitor 1.5.2.1 Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitor 1.5.2.2 Tantalum and Niobium Electrolytic Capacitor 1.5.3 Supercapacitors 1.5.3.1 Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC 1.5.3.2 Pseudocapacitor 1.5.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitor 1.6 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 2 Electric Double-Layer Capacitors 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Electrical Double-Layer Theories 2.2.1 The Helmholtz Model 2.2.2 The Gouy-Chapman or Diffuse Model 2.2.3 The Stern Model 2.2.4 Modified Theories 2.3 Theoretical Treatments and Modelling 2.3.1 The Classical Equivalent Circuit 2.3.2 The Three-Branch Model 2.3.3 The Porous Electrode Theory 2.3.4 Transmission Line Model (TLM) 2.4 Energy Density and Power Density 2.4.1 The Ragone Plot 2.5 Electrode Materials 2.5.1 Activated Carbon 2.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 2.5.3 Carbon Aerogel 2.5.4 Carbon Nanofibre (CNF) 2.5.5 Graphene 2.5.6 Fullerene 2.6 Electrolyte Materials 2.7 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Pseudocapacitors 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Pseudocapacitors 3.3 Energetics and Kinetics of Pseudocapacitance 3.3.1 The Definition of Pseudocapacitance 3.4 Electrode Materials 3.4.1 Metal Oxides 3.4.1.1 Ruthenium Oxide (RuO2 3.4.1.2 Manganese Oxide (MnO2 3.4.1.3 Nickel Oxide (NiO 3.4.1.4 Vanadium Oxides 3.4.2 Binary and Ternary oxides 3.4.3 Chalcogenides 3.4.3.1 Nickel Sulphides 3.4.3.2 Cobalt Sulphides 3.4.3.3 Copper Selenides 3.4.4 Conducting Polymers 3.4.4.1 Polyaniline (PANI 3.4.5 Nanostructured Carbon 3.5 Electrolytes 3.5.1 Classification of Electrolytes 3.5.2 Criteria for Selection of Electrolyte 3.5.3 Additives in Electrolytes 3.6 Separators 3.7 Current Collectors 3.8 Conclusions References Chapter 4 Looking Deeper into Electrode Processes 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Fundamentals of Electric Double-Layer Capacitance and Pseudocapacitance 4.2.1 Materials with Pseudocapacitive Behavior 4.2.1.1 Intrinsic Pseudocapacitor Materials 4.2.1.2 Extrinsic Pseudocapacitor Materials 4.2.2 Intercalation Pseudocapacitance 4.2.2.1 Cation Intercalation Pseudocapacitance 4.2.2.2 Anion Intercalation Pseudocapacitance 4.2.3 Carbon-Based Electrode Materials 4.3 Effect of Structure and Porosity on Electrochemical Performance of Supercapacitors 4.3.1 Effect of Porosity on Electrochemical Performance 4.3.2 Effect of Structure on Electrochemical Performance 4.4 Tuning the Performance of Supercapacitors by Understanding the Concepts 4.4.1 Methods for Tuning Supercapacitor Performance 4.4.1.1 Nanostructuring of Electrodes 4.4.1.2 Chemical Activation of Active Electrode Material 4.4.1.3 Physical Activation of Active Electrode Material 4.5 Conclusion References Chapter 5 Design Considerations 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Supercapacitor System Design Considerations 5.2.1 Cell Voltage 5.2.2 Frequency Response 5.2.3 Ambient Temperature 5.2.4 Polarity 5.2.5 Lifetime and Cycle Charging 5.2.6 Humidity 5.2.7 Efficiency 5.3 Single Cell Manufacturing 5.3.1 Electrode 5.3.2 Electrolyte 5.3.3 Separator 5.3.4 Collector Plate 5.3.5 Sealants 5.3.6 Different Configurations 5.3.6.1 Symmetric Supercapacitors 5.3.6.2 Asymmetric Supercapacitors 5.3.6.3 Hybrid Capacitors 5.3.7 Interconnection 5.4 Summary References Chapter 6 Characterization Techniques 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Cyclic Voltammetry (CV 6.3 Galvanostatic Charge/Discharge or Chronopotentiometry 6.4 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS 6.5 Modelling Techniques 6.5.1 Empirical Modelling 6.5.2 Dissipation Transmission Line Models 6.5.3 Continuum Models 6.5.4 Atomistic Models 6.5.5 Quantum Models 6.5.6 Simplified Analytical Models 6.6 Summary References Chapter 7 Design, Fabrication, and Operation 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Considerations and Trends for Single-Cell Supercapacitors 7.2.1 Coin Cell Supercapacitor 7.2.2 Cylindrical Cell Supercapacitor 7.2.3 Prismatic Cell Supercapacitor 7.3 Parameters Affecting Performance 7.4 Operation of Functional Supercapacitor 7.4.1 Self-Discharging 7.4.2 Cell Ageing and Voltage Decay 7.5 Supercapattery 7.6 Stack Manufacturing and Construction 7.7 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 8 Conventional Applications of Supercapacitors 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Load Levelling 8.2.1 Introduction 8.2.2 Supercapacitors in Load-Levelling Applications 8.2.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors in Load-Levelling Applications 8.3 Regenerative Braking 8.3.1 Introduction 8.3.2 Supercapacitors in Regenerative Braking Applications 8.4 Cranes, Lifts, and Trucks 8.4.1 Introduction 8.4.2 Supercapacitors in Cranes 8.4.3 Supercapacitors in Trucks and Lifts 8.5 Consumer Electronics 8.6 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 9 Portable Electronics and Microsupercapacitors 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Portable Electronics 9.3 Supercapacitors in Wearable Electronics 9.4 Microsupercapacitors 9.4.1 Fundamentals of Microsupercapacitors 9.4.1.1 Sandwich-Like Design 9.4.1.2 In-Plane Interdigitated Design 9.4.2 Fabrication Techniques for Interdigital Microsupercapacitors 9.4.3 Electrode Materials 9.5 Summary and Outlook References Chapter 10 Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Modern Electric Vehicles 10.2.1 Major Types of Electric Vehicles 10.2.1.1 Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV 10.2.1.2 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV 10.2.1.3 Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle (FCHEV 10.2.1.4 Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV 10.2.1.5 Range Extender Electric Vehicle (REXEV 10.3 Storage Systems for Electric Vehicle Applications 10.3.1 Fuel Cells 10.3.2 Hybrid Storage System (HSS 10.3.3 Hybrid Supercapacitors for EV Applications 10.4 The Modeling of Supercapacitors in EVs 10.4.1 Electric Models 10.4.2 Thermal Modeling 10.5 Summary References Chapter 11 Power Harvesting and Storage System: Supercapacitors Aiding New and Renewable Energy Generation 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Integrated Solar Cell–Supercapacitor System 11.2.1 Device Architecture 11.2.2 Integrated Silicon Solar Cell–Supercapacitor System 11.2.3 Integrated OSC–Supercapacitor System 11.2.4 Integrated DSSC–Supercapacitor System 11.3 Wind Turbines 11.3.1 Wind Turbine Power Characteristics 11.3.2 Supercapacitors Linked to Wind Farms 11.4 Blue Energy: Capacitive Storage 11.4.1 Introduction 11.4.2 Theoretical Analysis 11.4.3 Capacitive Energy Extraction: Electric Double Layer 11.4.4 Capacitive Energy Extraction: Faradaic Pseudocapacitor 11.5 Summary References Chapter 12 Market Trends, Innovations and Challenges 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Market Considerations 12.2.1 Demand Creation in the Existing Market 12.2.1.1 Hybrid Energy Storage Systems 12.2.1.2 Replacement of Traditional Battery Systems 12.2.1.3 Replacement of Traditional Capacitor Systems 12.2.2 Market Considerations Specific to End Users 12.2.2.1 Automobile Electronics 12.2.2.2 Industrial Electronics 12.2.2.3 Consumer Electronics 12.3 Innovative Technologies and Future Perspectives 12.3.1 Novel Materials 12.3.2 Technological Developments 12.3.2.1 Flexible Supercapacitors 12.3.2.2 Micro Supercapacitors (MSCs 12.3.2.3 Hybrid Capacitors 12.3.2.4 Piezoelectric SCs 12.3.2.5 Shape Memory SCs 12.3.2.6 Transparent Supercapacitors and Others 12.3.3 Developments in the Application Scenario 12.3.3.1 Social Demands 12.3.3.2 Scalability 12.4 Challenges Associated with Development of Supercapacitors 12.4.1 Technical Challenges 12.4.1.1 Electrode Materials 12.4.1.2 Electrolytes 12.4.2 Challenges in the Application Perspective 12.5 Summary and Outlook References Index