Archaeology and Geoarchaeology of the Mukogodo Hills and Ewaso Ng'iro Plains, Central Kenya

Description

Since 1996, the author has been involved with a cultural, archaeological, and geological survey of the Mukogodo Hills and Ewaso Ng'iro Plains in Central Kenya. Results of this research are presented herein, with a primary goal of providing an environmental chronology and describing patterns of human land use through the Late Pleistocene. This was accomplished through geoarchaeological and archaeological survey. The geoarchaeological study demonstrates how local environmental conditions, particularly fluvial geomorphology, have responded to East African climatic fluctuations. This, in turn, provides a comparative basis to interpret cultural change documented by the archaeological survey. While building on research that has already been conducted in the region, these investigations provide the context within which to make archaeological interpretations meaningful. This research addresses four main questions. First, did landscape changes affect the distribution of archaeological sites in the Mukogodo Hills-Ewaso Ng'iro Plains region? Second, are there significant differences in land-use patterns between the Middle and Later Stone Age inhabitants of the region? Third, did the arrival of pastoralism contribute to erosion and degradation of the landscape? Fourth, has ecological change correlated with changes in economic patterns observed in the archaeological record? Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES Figure 1. Geographic location of Kenya on the continent of Africa 2 Chapter 1.pdf CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION THE ROAD TO KIPSING CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON THE MIDDLE AND LATER STONE AGE IN EAST AFRICA The Early Stone Age The Middle Stone Age Later Stone Age Later Stone Age: Pastoral Neolithic INVESTIGATIONS IN THE MUKOGODO HILLS PREVIOUS SURVEYS IN THE MUKOGODO HILLS AND ELSEWHERE IN KENYA OUTLINE OF THIS MONOGRAPH SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH Chapter 2.pdf PALEOECOLOGY PLEISTOCENE ENVIRONMENTS 300 Thousand Years Ago to 25,000 Years Ago (Stages 3—8) Last Glacial Maximum to The Holocene: 25,000 Years to 12,500 Years Ago (Stage 2) Pleistocene/Holocene Transition to Mid-Holocene: 12,500 to 5000 Years Ago (Stage 1) Mid-Holocene to Present: 5000 B.P. to Present (Stage 1 Continued) COLONIAL-ERA ECOLOGICAL TRENDS Chapter 3.pdf CHAPTER 3 GEOARCHAEOLOGY THE 1995 TOL RIVER PROFILE IMPORTANT GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE MUKOGODO FOOTHILLS AND EWASO NG’IRO PLAINS Fluvial Channel and Terrace Sediments Alluvial Fans A Note on Aeolian Processes Human and Animal Impact Peleta Group Alluvium (Qp and Qpf) Kipsing Alluvium (Qk and Qkc) Shordika Alluvium (Qsh) Seaku Alluvium (Qsk) Tol Alluvium (Qt) Chapter 4.pdf CHAPTER 4 SITE SURVEY Early Stone Age (ESA) Middle Stone Age (MSA) Later Stone Age (LSA, also Late Stone Age) Iron Age (IRA) DISCUSSION OF SURVEY RESULTS Iron Age Sites Other Sites Chapter 5.pdf CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REVIEW OF GOALS AND HYPOTHESES Hypothesis One: Landscape Change (Patterns of Erosion, Deposition, and Stability) Has Not Affected the Distribution of Sites in the Mukogodo Hills-Ewaso Ng’iro Plains Hypothesis Two: There Is No Significant Difference in Land-Use Patterns Between Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age Inhabitants of the Mukogodo Hills-Ewaso Ng’iro Plains Hypothesis Three: The Arrival of Pastoralism Did Not Contribute to Erosion and Degradation of the Landscape Hypothesis Four: Ecological Change Resulting from Climatic Change Is Not Correlated with Changes in Economic Patterns Observed in the Archaeological Record A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MUKOGODO HILLS REGION BASED ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH References.pdf REFERENCES CITED Sites Appendix.pdf GnJm 7: Lithic Scatter, Early Middle Stone Age GnJm 8: Stone Cairns GnJm 9: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 10: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 11: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 12: Lithic Scatter, Middle/Later Stone Age GnJm 13: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 14: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 15: Iron Smelting Site, Iron Age. GnJm 16: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 17: Stone Cairn GnJm 18: Lithic Scatter, Multiple Component (MSA, IRA) GnJm 19: Lithic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 20: Stone Cairn GnJm 21: Stone Cairn GnJm 22: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 23 (Kipsing): Lithic Scatter, Multiple Component (MSA, LSA, IRA, Historic) GnJm 24: Stone Cairns GnJm 25: Stone Cairns, Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age and Later GnJm 26: Stone Cairn SITES ENCOUNTERED DURING THE 1999 SURVEY GnJm 27: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 28: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 29: Multiple Component Prehistoric Use Site (MSA, LSA, IRA) GnJm 30: Ceramic and Lithic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 31: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 32: Lithic Scatter, Middle and Later Stone Age GnJm 33: Lithic Scatter GnJm 34: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 35: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 36: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 37: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 38 (Lenkiteng Site): Buried Lithic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 39: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 40: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 41: Lithic and Ceramic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 42: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 43: Lithic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 44: Lithic and Ceramic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 46: Lithic and Ceramic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 47 (Peleta Rock): Lithic and Ceramic Scatter, Multiple Component (MSA, LSA, Historic) GnJm 48: Lithic Scatter, Later Stone Age and Historic GnJm 49: Lithic and Ceramic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 50: Lithic Scatter (Middle Stone Age) GnJm 51: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age (Late) GnJm 52: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 53 (Mau-Mau Camp): Historic Site GnJm 54: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 55: Iron Smelting Site, Iron Age GnJm 56 (Police Post): Historic Site GnJm 57: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 58: Buried Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 59: Lithic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 60: Lithic Scatter GnJm 61: Lithic Scatter GnJm 62: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 63: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 64: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 65: Lithic Scatter, Middle Stone Age GnJm 0/10: Isolated Lithic Flake GnJm 0/11: Isolated Lithic Flake GnJm 0/12: Isolated Lithic Scatter GnJm 0/13: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 0/14: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 0/15: Isolated Lithic GnJm 0/16: Isolated Lithics GnJm 0/17: Isolated Lithic Scatter GnJm 0/18: Lithic and Ceramic Scatter, Later Stone Age GnJm 0/19: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 0/20: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 0/21: Ceramic Scatter, Iron Age GnJm 0/22: Isolated Lithic Flake 00.pdf Chapter 1.pdf CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION THE ROAD TO KIPSING CURRENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH ON THE MIDDLE AND LATER STONE AGE IN EAST AFRICA The Early Stone Age The Middle Stone Age Later Stone Age Later Stone Age: Pastoral Neolithic INVESTIGATIONS IN THE MUKOGODO HILLS PREVIOUS SURVEYS IN THE MUKOGODO HILLS AND ELSEWHERE IN KENYA OUTLINE OF THIS MONOGRAPH SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH Chapter 2.pdf PALEOECOLOGY PLEISTOCENE ENVIRONMENTS 300 Thousand Years Ago to 25,000 Years Ago (Stages 3—8) Last Glacial Maximum to The Holocene: 25,000 Years to 12,500 Years Ago (Stage 2) Pleistocene/Holocene Transition to Mid-Holocene: 12,500 to 5000 Years Ago (Stage 1) Mid-Holocene to Present: 5000 B.P. to Present (Stage 1 Continued) COLONIAL-ERA ECOLOGICAL TRENDS Chapter 3.pdf CHAPTER 3 GEOARCHAEOLOGY THE 1995 TOL RIVER PROFILE IMPORTANT GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN THE MUKOGODO FOOTHILLS AND EWASO NG’IRO PLAINS Fluvial Channel and Terrace Sediments Alluvial Fans A Note on Aeolian Processes Human and Animal Impact Peleta Group Alluvium (Qp and Qpf) Kipsing Alluvium (Qk and Qkc) Shordika Alluvium (Qsh) Seaku Alluvium (Qsk) Tol Alluvium (Qt) Chapter 4.pdf CHAPTER 4 SITE SURVEY Early Stone Age (ESA) Middle Stone Age (MSA) Later Stone Age (LSA, also Late Stone Age) Iron Age (IRA) DISCUSSION OF SURVEY RESULTS Iron Age Sites Other Sites Chapter 5.pdf CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REVIEW OF GOALS AND HYPOTHESES Hypothesis One: Landscape Change (Patterns of Erosion, Deposition, and Stability) Has Not Affected the Distribution of Sites in the Mukogodo Hills-Ewaso Ng’iro Plains Hypothesis Two: There Is No Significant Difference in Land-Use Patterns Between Middle Stone Age and Later Stone Age Inhabitants of the Mukogodo Hills-Ewaso Ng’iro Plains Hypothesis Three: The Arrival of Pastoralism Did Not Contribute to Erosion and Degradation of the Landscape Hypothesis Four: Ecological Change Resulting from Climatic Change Is Not Correlated with Changes in Economic Patterns Observed in the Archaeological Record A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE MUKOGODO HILLS REGION BASED ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Front Cover Title Page Copyright Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Figures List of Tables CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY CHAPTER 3: GEOARCHAEOLOGY CHAPTER 4: SITE SURVEY CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES CITED APPENDIX A Monograph Series