Encyclopedia of Ionic Liquids

Description

The encyclopedia consists 13 subareas as follows: 1: Synthesis and Characterisation of Ionic Liquids (Section Editors: Prof. Fu-Wei Li and Prof. Zhen Li) 2: Physicochemical Properties of Ionic Liquids (Section Editors: Asso. Prof. Qing Zhou, Prof. Xingmei Lu and Prof. Xiaoyan Ji) 3: Computational and Theoretical Modeling of Ionic Liquids (Section Editors: Prof. Guang Feng and Prof. Peter T. Cummings) 4: Toxicology and Biodegradation of Ionic Liquids (Section Editors: Prof. Chunxi Li and Prof. Stefan Stolte) 5: Ionic Liquids in Electrochemistry (Section Editors: Prof. Yingying Lu, Prof. Houlong Zhuang and Prof. Chuan Zhao) 6. Ionic Liquids in Organic Reaction (Section Editors: Prof. Liang-Nian He and Prof. Bhalchandra M. Bhanage) 7. Ionic Liquids in Separation (Section Editors: Prof. Huabin Xing) 8. Ionic Liquids in Biomass and Biomolecules (Section Editors: Prof. Toshiyuki Itoh and Prof. Jian Sun) 9. Ionic Liquids in Materials Science (Section Editors: Prof. Sheng Dai and Prof. Tao Wang) 10. Ionic Liquids in Polymer Science (Section Editors: Asso. Prof. Jinming Zhang and Prof. Jun Zhang) 11. Ionic Liquids in Environmental Science (Section Editors: Prof. Tiancheng Mu, Prof. Arunprakash T. Karunanithi and Prof. Yingxiong Wang) 12. Ionic Liquids in Green Chemistry (Section Editors: Prof. Buxing Han and Prof. Peter Licence) 13. Emerging Applications of Ionic Liquids (Pharmacology, Food Science, Agriculture, Nuclear Science Technology, Optics) (Section Editors: Prof. Zhonghao Li and Prof. Maya Guncheva) This encyclopedia is systematic and comprehensive, with detailed descriptions about theory, technology, and industrial applications. This encyclopedia is valuable for students, researchers and industrial players, giving them a quick understanding and overview of ionic liquids in various aspects. Foreword List of Topics About the Editor Section Editors Contributors A 1-Butyl-3-methyl imidazolium (BMIM) Abiotic Degradation of Ionic Liquids (ILs) Introduction Ionic Liquids Degradation Pathways Hydrolysis Photolysis Advanced Technologies for ILs Disposal Chemical Oxidations Photochemical Oxidations Electrochemical Oxidations Overall AoPs Applicability Conclusions Cross-References References Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Ionic Liquid: A New Platform for the Pharmaceutical Industry Introduction Design and Synthesis of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Ionic Liquids Effects of API-IL Form on Biological and Physical Properties Biological Activity Beyond Pharmaceuticals Clinical Trials and Regulations Conclusions and Outlook References Advances in Monte Carlo Simulation of Ionic Liquids Introduction Monte Carlo Methodology Thermophysical Properties of Ionic Liquids Gas Solubility Calculations in Ionic Liquids Henry´s Constants Pure Gas Absorption Isotherms Ammonia Solubility Water Solubility Gas Solubility in Binary Ionic Liquid Mixtures Gas Solubility in Ionic Liquid-Based Composite Materials Vapor-Liquid Equilibria (VLE) for Pure Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquid Confinement Simulating Reaction in Ionic Liquids Summary and Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgment References Aerobic Oxidation in Ionic Liquids Introduction Aerobic Oxidation Catalysis with Air or Molecular Oxygen and Ionic Liquids Aerobic Oxidation of Alcohols with ILs Metal-Based Reactions Metal-Free Aerobic Oxidation of Alcohols Aerobic Oxidation of Biomass in ILs Aerobic Oxidative Desulfurization in ILs Aerobic Oxidation of Thiols in ILs Synthesis of Heterocyclic Compounds by Aerobic Oxidation in ILs Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids by Aerobic Oxidation in ILs Aerobic Oxidation of Phenol in ILs Glaser Oxidative Coupling in ILs Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation of Ketones in ILs References Agrochemicals All-Atom Models of Ionic Liquids All-Atom Force Fields: in medio stat virtus The Anatomy of an All-Atom Interaction Model Fixed-Charge Force Fields Polarizable Force Fields Perspectives for All-Atom Models Cross-References References Amino Acids Ionic Liquids Introduction Types of AAILs Properties of AAILs Macro Properties Micro Properties Synthesis of AAILs Amino Acids as Anions Amino Acids as Cations Application of AAILs Solvent Catalyst Extraction and Separation CO2 Capture and Absorption Conclusion Cross-References Reference Ammonium Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Ammonium ILs Synthesis of Protic Ammonium ILs Synthesis of Aprotic Ammonium ILs Synthesis of Ammonium ILs with Both Protic and Aprotic Cation Centers Characterization of Ammonium ILs Elemental Analysis NMR Analysis Vibrational Spectroscopy Analysis Cross-References References Amorphous Ionic Liquid Strategies for Pharmaceutical Application Introduction Physicochemical Properties Permeation Conclusion Cross-References References Antitumor Agents Application of Ionic Liquid Solvents in the Food Industry Introduction Extraction and Obtaining of Value-Added Compounds Food Analysis Recyclability of Ionic Liquids Conclusions and Perspectives Cross-References Acknowledgment References Application of Ionic Liquids in Electrochemical Detection for Food Samples Introduction IL-Based Electrode Sensor for Food Samples IL-Based Electrode Sensor IL/CNM Hybrid Film Modifying Electrode Sensor Carbon Ionic Liquid Electrode (CILE) Additional Nanomaterials to IL/CNM Electrode Perspective on IL-Based Electrode IL/Other Substrate Sensor Covalent Bond-Linking IL with Substrate or Additive Chiral and Smart IL-Based Sensor Summary References Application of Ionic Liquids in Extraction and Separation of Biological Samples Introduction Significance of Biological Sample Analysis Advantages of Ionic Liquid-Based Extraction Extraction Mechanisms and Characteristics Extraction Methods Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE) Solid-Phase Extraction (SPE) Other Methods The Role of Ionic Liquids Cross-References References Applications of Ionic Liquids in Clean and Valuable Utilization of Coal: From Aspects of Environment Introduction Emerging Applications of ILs During Utilization of LRCs IL Pretreatment Before Thermal Conversion IL Pretreatment to Inhibit Spontaneous Combustion IL Pretreatment to Inhibit Coal Dust Extraction and Dissolution of LRCs in ILs Potential Effects of ILs on Environment Recycling of ILs and Long-Term Performances of ILs Pollution Risk by the Residual ILs in Coals Life Cycle Effects on the Environment of ILs Problems in the Reported Studies Conclusions and Future Prospects Acknowledgment References Applications of Ionic Liquids in Desulfurization of Fuel Oil Introduction Effect of Ionic Liquid Types on the Extractive Desulfurization The Extractive Desulfurization of Metal Chloride-Based Ionic Liquids The Combined Oxidative-Extractive Desulfurization Using Ionic Liquids The Desulfurization Efficiency of Various Sulfur Compounds with Ionic Liquids The Regeneration of Ionic Liquid Summary and Prospective Cross-References References Aquatic Toxicology of Ionic Liquids (ILs) Introduction Boosting the Sustainable Design of ILs Cholinium-Based ILs Versus Nitrogen-Based Cyclic ILs Structure-Ecotoxicity Relationships Within Cholinium-Based ILs Strategies to Develop Less Toxic Cholinium-Based ILs Balancing the ``Innocuous Nature´´ and ``High Performance´´ with Cholinium ILs Conclusions Acknowledgment References B Biocatalysis in Ionic Liquids Introduction Enzymatic Reactions in ILs Lipase Oxidordeuctase Protease Acylase Whole-Cell Catalyzed Reactions in ILs Influence of ILs on Biocatalysis Effect of the Characteristics of ILs on Biocatalytic Process Influence of ILs on Biocatalyst Structure and Activity Future Perspective of Biocatalytic Reactions in ILs Developing Novel ILs for Biocatalysis IL-Mediated Biocatalysis Novel Biphasic Reaction System Concluding Remarks References Biodegradability of Ionic Liquids (ILs) Under Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions Introduction Testing Biodegradability Biodegradability of ILs´ Cations by Classes Imidazoliums Pyridiniums Ammoniums Morpholiniums Pyrrolidiniums Phosphoniums Other Cations Biodegradability of ILs´ Anions Anaerobic Versus Aerobic Degradation Synergistic Effects in Biodegradation Cross-References References Biological Activity of Ionic Liquids Involving Ionic and Covalent Binding: Tunable Drug Development Platform Synonyms Definition Introduction: Biological Activity of Ionic Liquids Medical Potential of Ionic Liquids Physicochemical Properties and Pharmaceutical Activities of API-ILs Ionic Liquid Tags for Single Cell Studies Future Directions Cross-References References C Capacitance with Different Electrode Surface Topology Introduction References Catalysis of Supported Ionic Liquids Definition Introduction Supported Ionic Liquid Phase (SILP) Technology Solid Catalyst with Ionic Liquid Layer (SCILL) Technology Key Applications SILP Catalysis Applications SCILL Catalysis Applications Cross-References References Chemical Reactions in Ionic Liquids Introduction Oxidative Reactions in Ionic Liquids Oxidation of Alcohols Oxidative Desulfurization Reductive Reactions in Ionic Liquids Carbon Dioxide Reduction in Ionic Liquids Hydrogenation Reactions in Ionic Liquids Hydrodeoxygenation Reactions in Ionic Liquids Biomass Conversion in Ionic Liquids Concluding Remarks References Chiral Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of CILs CILs with Chirality on the Cation CILs with Imidazolium Cationic Moiety CILs with Pyridinium Cationic Moiety CILs with Ammonium Cationic Moiety CILs with Other Cationic Moieties CILs with Chirality on the Anion CILs with Chirality on Both the Cation and the Anion Characterization of CILs Cross-References References Chitin as a Resource for Eco-friendly Bioplastics Introduction Bioplastics More to the Story: Biodegradation What Is the Plastic Catastrophe? Biopolymers to Save the World? Looking to the Future: Chitin Biomaterials Commercial Deployment References Condensed Structures and Properties of Ionic Liquids Under High Pressure Introduction Crystallization of ILs Under High Pressure [C2mim][PF6] [C4mim][PF6] [C10mim][BF4] [C8mim][PF6] [C2mim][PF6] (from Methanol Solution) [C2mim][CF3SO3] Vitrification of ILs Under High Pressure [C4mim][BF4] [C2mim][EtOSO3] [C6mim][PF6] [C4mim][TFSI] [C6mim][BF4] Mesophase of ILs Under High Pressure [C12mim][BF4] Properties of ILs Under High Pressure Solubility of [C2mim][PF6] in Methanol Viscosity of [CnMIM][BF4] Under High Pressure Cross-References References Conversion of Chitin in Ionic Liquids Introduction Chitin Extraction and Dissolution in Ionic Liquids Chitin Chemical and Enzymatic Modifications in Ionic Liquids 2D and 3D Chitin-Based Materials References D DBU-Based Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of DBU-Based Ionic Liquids Synthesis of Protic DBU-Based Ionic Liquids Synthesis of Aprotic DBU-Based Ionic Liquids Synthesis of DBU-Based Dicationic Ionic Liquids Characterization of DBU-Based Ionic Liquids NMR Characterization Thermal Analysis FT-IR Characterization Cross-References Reference Density of Ionic Liquids Introduction Instruments and Method to Determine Density of Ionic Liquids Comparison of Ionic Liquid Densities Based on Their Structure Modeling of Ionic Liquid Densities Notation References Depolymerization of Lignin by Catalytic Oxidation in Ionic Liquids Introduction Ionic Liquids for Lignin Extraction ILs as Solvents for Lignin Catalytic Oxidation and Depolymerization ILs as Solvents for Lignin Model Compound Catalytic Oxidation and Depolymerization ILs as Solvents for Lignin Catalytic Oxidation and Depolymerization ILs as Catalysts for Lignin Catalytic Oxidation and Depolymerization ILs as Catalyst for Lignin Model Compound Catalytic Oxidation and Depolymerization ILs as Catalyst for Lignin Catalytic Oxidation and Depolymerization Techniques for Characterization of ILs and Lignin Techniques for Characterization of ILs Techniques for Characterization of Lignin Conclusion References Design of Amino Acid ILs for Dissolution of Lignocellulosic Biomass Introduction Designing Ionic Liquids that Dissolve Cellulose Amino Acid-ILs as Cellulose Dissolving Solvents Cellulose Dissolution in a Mixed Solvent of Amino Acid ILs with a Polar Molecular Solvent Conclusion Cross-References References Design of Functional Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids for Biomass Processing Introduction Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids Design of Anion Dissolution Ability For Cellulose For Lignin For Lignocellulose Catalytic Ability Design of Side Chain Dissolution Ability Catalytic Ability Distillability Design of Zwitterion Dissolution Ability Biocompatibility Brief Summary Cross-References References Design of Polymeric Ionic Liquids for the Separation of Structurally Similar Compounds Introduction The Efficient Separation of Bioactive Molecules The Selective Separation of Acetylene from Ethylene The Removal of Sulfur Dioxide from Flue Gas Cross-References Reference Determination of Pesticide/Herbicide by Using Ionic Liquids Introduction Determination of Pesticide/Herbicide Pesticide Herbicide References Disposal of the Industrial Wastes of Ionic Liquid Introduction Applications of Ionic Liquids and Their Recyclability Toxicity of ILs Versus Their Disposal Disposal Approaches of Ionic Liquids Disposal Technologies for ILs Reclaim of the Used ILs Resource Utilization of the Used ILs Resource Use of the Cation via Hydrolysis Resource Use of the ILs for Carbon Materials Incineration of the Used ILs Degradation of the Used ILs Summary and Prospective Acknowledgment References Dissolving and Spinning of Biomass Using Ionic Liquids as Solvents Introduction Cellulose Dissolution in ILs and Spinning Technology Structure of Cellulose Solvents for Cellulose Dissolution Mechanism of Cellulose Dissolution in ILs Cellulose Spinning Technology Using ILs as Solvents Keratin dissolution in ILs Effect of ILs Structure on Keratin Dissolution Capability Interaction Mechanism Between ILs and Keratin Keratin Application and the Key Scientific Questions in Keratin Dissolution Process Chitosan Dissolution in ILs Effect of ILs´ Structures on Chitosan Dissolution Capability Interaction Mechanism Between ILs and Chitosan Application of ILs to Dissolve Chitosan and Corresponding Key Scientific Problems Key Scientific Issues in Dissolving Different Natural Polymers Using ILs Cross-References References Dual Nature of Ionic Liquids: Ionic Versus Organic Introduction Basic Methodology Simulation Method Calculation of Electric Field Calculation of Intermolecular Vibrational Frequency and Force Constant Calculation of Activation Energy Key Findings Molecular Structure and Charge Delocalization Liquid Structure and Cage Energy Landscape Intermolecular Vibrational Frequency Force and Intrinsic Electric Field Cage Energy Tune the Dual Nature of Ionic Liquids Future Directions References Dynamics of Ionic Liquids Confined in Carbon-Based Nanomaterial Towards Energy Storage and Conversion Application Introduction Dynamic Properties of Ionic Liquids Confined in 1D Carbon Nanomaterial Dynamic Properties of Ionic Liquids Confined in 2D Carbon Nanomaterial Dynamic Properties of Ionic Liquids Confined in Other Carbon Nanomaterial Concluding Remarks and Prospects Cross-References Acknowledgment References E Effect of Ionic Liquids on Activity and Stability of Enzymes Introduction Discussion Conclusion References Electrocatalytic Reduction of CO2 in Ionic Liquid-Based Electrolytes Introduction CO2 in Ionic Liquids Physicochemical Properties of Ionic Liquids CO2 Solubility and Structures in Ionic Liquids Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction in Ionic Liquids Heterogeneous Catalyst for CO2 Electroreduction in Ionic Liquids Homogeneous Catalyst for CO2 Electroreduction in Ionic Liquids Mechanism of CO2 Electroreduction in Ionic Liquids Summary and Outlook References Electroconductivity of Ionic Liquids Introduction Definition of Electroconductivity The Empiric Relations for the Electroconductivity of ILs The Temperature Dependence of Electroconductivity for ILs Walden Rule Theoretical Prediction Electroconductivities of Typical ILs Typical ILs Electroconductivities at Different Temperatures [47] The Symbol Tables References Engineering Aspect of Ionic Liquids: Analysis of Reaction Kinetics and Multiphase Reactors Introduction Impact and Scope of Ionic Liquids Multiphase Reactions Multiphase Reactions in IL Systems Reaction Rate, Yield, and Selectivity Multiphasic Reactions Fluid-Liquid Reactions F-L Reaction Regimes Slow Reaction Regimes () Regime 1: Very Slow Reaction (or Kinetically Controlled Reaction) Regime 2: Mass Transfer Controlled Slow Reaction Fast Reactions () Regime 3: Fast Pseudo mth Order Reaction Regime 3-4: Fast Reaction with Depletion of Species B at the F-L Interface (Depletion Regime) (Fig. 3b) Regime 4: Instantaneous Reaction Fluid-Side Resistance Fast Pseudo-First Order Reaction Instantaneous Reaction Fluid-Film Controlled Operation Liquid-Liquid Reaction Using IL S-L Reactions Gas-Liquid-Solid Reactions Liquid-Liquid-Liquid Reactions Measurement of Kinetics of Reactions Experimental Methods: Reaction Rates and Kinetics for G-S Reactions Differential Reactor Integral Reactor Batch Reactor Identification Controlling Mechanism: Gas-Film Resistance in G-S Reactor Solid (Catalyst)-Liquid Reaction Measurement of Reaction Rates and Kinetics Industrial Reactors Choice of Reactor Conclusion References Enhanced Ion Mobility in Ionic Liquids Introduction Mobility Issues in Ionic Liquids and Mobility Enhancement Design of Strongly Correlated Ion-Molecular Systems Ionic Liquids in Nanoscale Hydrophobic Environments Adjusting Temperature Regimes of Applications References Enhancing Cellulose Accessibility to Cellulase by Ionic Liquid Pretreatment: Interplay Between Cellulose Accessibility and Glu... Introduction Lignocellulose as New Petroleum Supplement Pretreatment Is a Key Step for Efficient Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulose Increasing Cellulose Accessibility to Cellulase (CAC) is More Important Than Lignin Removal Cellulose Solvent-Based Pretreatment Enhances Cellulose Accessibility to Cellulase Cellulose Accessibility to Cellulase Assays: Principles, Applications, and Limitations Biomimicry of a Fusion Protein Conclusions and Perspectives References Extraction of Heavy Metal Ions Using Ionic Liquids Introduction Ionic Solvation Environment Mechanisms for Extraction Ion-Exchange Mechanism Neutral (Co)extraction Conclusions References F Functional Ionic Liquid in Multicomponent Reaction, a Powerful Tool for C-C Bond Formation Synonyms Introduction Definition Functional Ionic Liquids (FILs) Scientific Fundamentals Functional Principles of FILs Synthetic Fundamental: General Synthetic Processes of FILs and Supported FILs Key Applications Three-Component Coupling Reactions in Ionic Liquids: An Improved Protocol in Organic Synthesis FILs as Catalysts in Three-Component Reactions FILs as Medium/Catalyst in Four-Component Reactions Cross-References References Functional Ionic Liquids (FILs) G Guanidinium Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Guanidinium-Based Ionic Liquids Synthesis from Alkyl Guanidine Synthesis from Alkyl Ureas or Alkyl Thioureas Synthesis from N,N-dialkylphosgeniminium Salts Characterization of Guanidinium-Based Ionic Liquids Cross-Reference References H Heat Capacity of Ionic Liquids Introduction Determination of Heat Capacity Data Collation, Analysis, and Evaluation Estimation Method Application of Heat Capacity References Herbicidal Ionic Liquids HILs Homogeneous Derivatization of Cellulose in Ionic Liquids Introduction Controllable Homogeneous Synthesis of Cellulose Derivatives in ILs New Cellulose Derivatives Applications of Cellulose Derivatives References Hydrogen Bond in Ionic Liquids Introduction Structural Characteristic of Hydrogen Bond in ILs Hydrogen Bond in the Aprotic ILs Hydrogen Bond in the Protic ILs Hydrogen-Bonded Network and Cluster Structures in ILs Effect on Properties and Reactions of Hydrogen Bond in ILs Conclusion Cross-References References Hydrogenation Reaction in Ionic Liquids Abbreviations Introduction ILs in the Hydrogenation Reactions ILs as Solvents ILs-iPrOH/H2O as Solvents Chiral ILs as Solvents ILs/CO2 as the Solvents Supported IL (SIL) as the Solvents Metal NPs in IL for Hydrogenation Ir NPs in ILs Ru NPs Ni NPs Pd NPs Rh NPs Bimetallic NPs Conclusion and Outlook References Hydrolysis of Ionic Liquids Introduction Hydrolysis of Fluorine-Based Anions Hydrolysis of Cyano-Based Anions Hydrolysis of Alkyl Sulfate-Based Anions Hydrolysis of Imidazolium Ring References I IL, Ionic Liquid Imidazolium Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Imidazolium ILs One-Step Synthesis of Imidazolium ILs Two-Step Synthesis of Imidazolium ILs Multi-Step Synthesis of Imidazolium ILs Characterization of Imidazolium ILs Element Composition and Mass of Imidazolium ILs Elemental Analysis Mass Spectrometry Spectral Analysis of Ionic Liquids UV-Vis Absorption Spectra Infrared Spectroscopy Analysis NMR Spectrum Analysis Structure Analysis of Ionic Liquid X-Ray Diffraction Electron Microscope Determination of Ionic Liquids Properties Computer-Aided Molecular Design Instrumental Measurement References Immobilization of Ionic Liquids, Types of Materials, and Applications Synonyms Definition Introduction Supported Ionic Liquids Covalent Grafting (Chemisorption) vs. Physical Confinement (Physisorption) Support Materials Applications of Supported Ionic Liquids Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Impact of Ionic Liquids Chemistry in the Electrochemistry of Neodymium Introduction Electrodeposition Principle Cathodic Processes of Nd Electrodeposits of Nd Metal in Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquid Chemical Compositions and Electrochemical Behavior Additives Conclusions and Future Remarks References Impact of Ionic Liquids to Industrial Water Treatment System Introduction Physicochemical Removal of Imidazolium-Based ILs Biodegradation of Imidazolium-Based ILs Chemical Degradation of Imidazolium-Based ILs Potential Impact of Imidazolium-Based ILs in Industrial Water Treatment System Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficient of Compound in Ionic Liquids Introduction Determination of Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficient Experimental Determination Theoretical Prediction Applications of Infinite Dilution Activity Coefficient Partial Molar Excess Properties at Infinite Dilution Selectivity and Capacity at Infinite Dilution Gas-Liquid Partition Coefficient References Ion Pairing in Ionic Liquids What Is Ion Pairing? Understanding Ion Pairing in Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquids at Interfaces Spectroscopy Molecular Dynamics Charge Transfer Protic Ionic Liquids Grotthuss Diffusion Ionic Liquids in Mixtures Conclusion Acknowledgment References Ionic Liquid as a Sustainable Reaction Medium for Diels-Alder Reaction Introduction Ionic Liquids Diels-Alder Reactions in ILs Cross-References References Ionic Liquid Catalysis for the Reductive Functionalization of CO2 Ionic Liquid Electrolytes as a Medium for Electrodeposition of Nanostructured Materials for Li-Ion Batteries Introduction Electrode/Electrolyte Interface Electrochemical Synthesis of Metal and Semiconductor Nanostructures Using Ionic Liquids for LIBs Electrodeposition of Metals Electrodeposition of Semiconductors Solid Electrolyte Interphase Summary Cross-References References Ionic Liquid in Cyclization Reaction Definition Scientific Fundamentals Basic Definitions About the Application of ILs in Cyclization Reaction Introduction to Ammonium ILs Application of ILs in Cyclization Reactions Imidazolium-Based ILs Tetraalkylammonium-Based ILs References Ionic Liquid in Hydrogenation Synonyms Definition Introduction Scientific Fundamentals Key Applications ILs Act as Medium/Stabilizer Supported IL Phase (SILP) Catalysis Cross-References References Ionic Liquid in Reduction of Unsaturated Bonds with Molecular Hydrogen Ionic Liquid Materials for the Adsorption of Toxic Gases Introduction Adsorption of Acidic Toxic Gases by ILs Adsorption of Alkaline Toxic Gases by ILs Adsorption of Neutral Toxic Gases by ILs Conclusion References Ionic Liquid Pretreatment of Lignocellulose for Overcoming Cell Wall Recalcitrance and Enhancing Enzymatic Hydrolysis Introduction Cell Wall Recalcitrance Solubilization and Regeneration of Lignocellulose in ILs Enhancement of Cellulose Saccharification Kinetics After ILs Pretreatment Factors Affecting Pretreatment Efficiency Ionic Liquid Recycling and Reuse Directions for Future Research References Ionic Liquid Tags for Drug Delivery Ionic Liquid/Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Biphasic Systems in Organic Synthesis Definition Scientific Fundamentals Key Applications IL/CO2 Biphasic Batch Reactions IL/CO2 Biphasic Continuous Flow Reactions Enzyme Catalysis Cross-References References Ionic Liquid-Based Adsorbents for the Removal of Toxic Dyes from Wastewater Introduction Structures and Properties of ILs Textile Wastewater Treatment Removal of Acid Dyes Removal of Basic Dyes Removal of Reactive Dyes The Factors Affecting ILs to Remove Dyes from Water Effect of the Hydrophobicity of ILs Effect of the pH Value on the Extraction Efficiency Conclusion References Ionic Liquid-Based Microextraction and Determination of Components in Food-Related Products Introduction The Two Main Models in the Microextraction with IL Solid-Phase Microextraction Liquid-Phase Microextraction The Application of IL-Based Microextraction in the Determination of Components in Food-Related Products Application to Metal Ions Application to Trace Elements Application to Organic and Aromatic Compounds Summary References Ionic Liquid-Based Nano-materials for Drug Delivery Introduction Types of Ionic Liquids Drug Delivery Microemulsions in Drug Delivery Mixture of ILs for Water Solubility of Drugs ILs and Nanoparticles Different Cultures Used for Accessing the Toxicity of ILs Toxicity of ILs Natural Deep Eutectic Solvents (NADES): New Generation Green Solvents Cross-References Acknowledgment References Ionic Liquid-Based Sensors for Fast Determination of Aromatic Compounds in the Environment Introduction Electrochemical and Fluorescence-Based Detection Method IL-Based Electrochemical Sensors IL-Based Fluorescent Sensors Conclusions and Perspectives References Ionic Liquid-Promoted CO2 Reductive Functionalization Synonyms Definition Scientific Fundamentals Reductive Functionalization of CO2 Designable Ionic Liquids for this Reaction Key Applications Ionic Liquid-Promoted 2-Electron Reduction of CO2 Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquid-Decorated COF Catalysts Ionic Liquid-Functionalized Zn(Salen) Catalysts Ionic Liquid-Promoted 4-Electron and 6-Electron Reduction of CO2 with Amines Cross-References References Ionic Liquid-Promoted Diagonal Transformations for CO2 Recycling Ionic Liquid-Promoted Reductive Domino Sequences Ionic Liquids (ILs) with Reduced Hazard and Risk, How to Design, and Future Challenges Introduction Design of Ionic Liquids with Low Persistency Design of Ionic Liquids with Low Bioaccumulation Potential Design of Ionic Liquids with Low (Eco)Toxicity Conclusions Cross-References References Ionic Liquids and Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients Ionic Liquids as Solvents for the Production of Materials from Biomass Introduction Lignocellulosic Feedstock: A Natural Composite Material Cellulose and Hemicellulose Lignin Lignocellulosic Biomass Processing with Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquids Dissolution and Fractionation of Lignocellulosic Biomass Chemical Dissolution and Modification of Cellulose in Ionic Liquids Dissolution of Cellulose in Ionic Liquids Regeneration of Cellulose from Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquids as Solvent Media for Chemical Modifications Applications for Cellulose-Based Materials Lignin Extraction and Utilization in Ionic Liquids Approaches to Valorization and Production of Materials from Lignin Lignin Depolymerization in Ionic Liquids Plastics from Lignin Monomers Composites Materials from Biomass Using Ionic Liquids Lignin as an Additive Films Fibers Wood-Based Gels Electronics/Batteries Ionic Liquid Recovery for Biomass Processing Conclusions Cross-References References Ionic Liquids Design Methodology for Separation Processes Introduction Fundamentals Physical Property Modeling Thermodynamic Modeling Process Simulation of IL-Involved Process State-of-the-Art Computer-Aided IL Screening Computer-Aided IL Design Concluding Remarks References Ionic Liquids for Anticancer Application Synonyms Introduction ILs Potential Anticancer Agents Other Related Anticancer Applications of ILs Conclusion Cross-References References Ionic Liquids for Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Introduction Recent Advances in Using ILs for CO2RR ILs for CO2 Capture ILs as Electrolytes ILs as Co-catalysts ILs for Synthesis of CO2RR Catalysts Novel Strategies Using ILs for CO2RR Nanoconfined ILs ILs Modified Electrode Poly Ionic Liquid-Modified Catalysts ILs for Integrated CO2 Capture and Electrolysis CO2 Electrolyzer Designs Using ILs H-Cell Flow Cells Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA) Economic System Design Using ILs for CO2RR Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgment References Ionic Liquids for Extractive Desulfurization of Fuels Introduction Background of Fuel Desulfurization Introduction of Extractive Desulfurization of Fuels by ILs Extractive Desulfurization of Fuels by ILs Imidazolium-Based ILs Pyridinium-Based ILs Metal-Based ILs Other ILs Mechanism References Ionic Liquids for Light Hydrocarbon Separation Introduction Separation of Alkynes C2H2/C2H4 Separation C3H4/C3H6 Separation Separation of Olefins C2H4/C2H6 Separation C3H6/C3H8 Separation C4 Olefin Separation Separation of Paraffins Conclusions and Perspectives References Ionic Liquids for Lithium and Sodium Batteries Introduction ILs as Electrolyte Liquid Electrolyte Li/Na-Ion Batteries Li-S Batteries Li-O2 (Air) Batteries Solid Electrolyte Polymer Electrolyte Hybrid Solid Electrolyte ILs for the Synthesis of Electrodes Carbon Electrode Materials Conclusion and Outlook Cross-References References Ionic Liquids for Oxidation of Olefins Introduction Application of Ionic Liquids for Oxidation of Olefins Epoxidation of Olefins Cleavage of the C=C Bond in Olefins Dihydroxylation of Olefins References Ionic Liquids in Clean and Sustainable Biocatalytic Organic Reactions Introduction: Toward Sustainability in Organic Reactions Biocatalysis: An Ancient Tool for Efficient Syntheses Enzymes and Medium Engineering: Water Versus Nonaqueous Solvents Biocatalysts and Ionic Liquids: The Synergy to Enhance Catalytic Reactions Upgrading Organic Reactions Through Biocatalysis in ILs Sponge-Like Ionic Liquids (SLILs): The Latest Trend in Clean Biocatalytic Processes Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Ionic Liquids in CO Capture and Separation Introduction Electronic Configuration of CO CO Capture Through Physical Absorption CO Capture Through Copper (I) Complexation Absorption CO Capture Through Nucleophilic Attack Prospective of CO Capture References Ionic Liquids in Life Sciences References Ionic Liquids in Nucleophilic Substitution Synonyms Definition Scientific Fundamentals Historical Development About IL-Promoted Nucleophilic Substitution Nucleophilic Halogenation Reaction Nucleophilic Nitrilation Reaction Nucleophilic Azide Reaction Nucleophilic Esterification Reaction Nucleophilic Hydroxylation Reaction Other Nucleophilic Substitution Cross-References References Ionic Liquids in Selective Oxidation Introduction Oxidation of Sulfides with ILs ILs as Oxidation Solvents or Media Selective Oxidation of Sulfides to Sulfoxides/Sulfones in ILs Extraction and Oxidative Desulfurization with ILs Oxidation of Sulfides Over IL or IL-Based Catalysts Oxidation of Alcohols in ILs Epoxidation of Alkenes in ILs Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation in ILs Oxidation of Alkanes, Benzene, and Its Derivatives in ILs Oxidation of Alkanes Oxidation of Benzene and Its Derivatives Future Directions References Ionic Liquids in Synthetic Rubber Introduction Ionic Liquids as Green Solvents for Synthetic Rubber Ionic Liquids as Modifiers for Synthetic Rubber Fillers Ionic Liquids as Additives for Synthetic Rubber Processing Ionic Liquids as Monomers for Synthetic Rubber Cross-References References Ionic Liquids with Herbicidal Activities Synonyms Introduction Herbicidal Ionic Liquids Benefits of HILs in Comparison to the Classical ILs Toxicity Biodegradability References Ionic Liquids Within the Radioactive Waste Recycling Schemes, Use of Introduction Radiation Stability of Ionic Liquids Ionic Liquids for Spent Fuel Reprocessing Recycling/Decontamination Processes Using Ionic Liquids Application of Ionic Liquids in Liquid-Liquid Extraction of Radionuclides Conclusion Cross-References References Ionic Liquids/Water Binary Mixtures Mediated Organic Reactions Introduction Ionic Liquid/Water Mixtures Promoted Reactions Hydrogenation Oxidation Suzuki Cross Coupling Diels-Alder Reaction Substitution Reaction Reduction Michael Addition Aldol Reaction Halogenation Epoxidation Allylation Prins Reaction Beckmann Rearrangement Conclusion References Ionic Liquids-Based Organic Electrolytes for Lignocellulose Pretreatment Towards Enhanced Enzymatic Hydrolysis Introduction The Dissolution History of Lignocellulosic Biomass from ILs to ILsOE The Dissolution Pretreatment Mechanism of ILsOE for Lignocellulosic Biomass Hydrogen Bonding Interaction Induced Crystalline Structure Transformation by ILs The Role of Organic Electrolytes During ILsOE Pretreatment Influence Factors of ILsOE Pretreatment Physicochemical Property and Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Pretreated Lignocellulose from ILsOE Pretreatment Physicochemical Structure and Compositional Changes of Lignocellulosic Biomass During ILsOE Pretreatment Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Pretreated Lignocellulose from ILsOE Pretreatment Summary and Perspectives Acknowledgment References Ionic Liquids-Promoted Nucleophilic Substitution L Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Ionic Liquids Introduction to Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) LCA to Assist in the Evaluation of the Sustainability of Ionic Liquids LCA Studies of Systems Involving Ionic Liquids: Literature Overview Early Works More on Organic Syntheses Capture and Utilization of Carbon Dioxide Cellulose and Lignocellulosic Biomass Processing The Need of More and Better Data for Increasing Accuracy Conclusions and Outlook Cross-References References Liquid-Liquid Equilibria of Binary and Ternary Systems Containing Ionic Liquids Introduction Access to LLE: Experiments Access to LLE: Thermodynamic Models Application of Thermodynamic Models Cross-References References M Magnetic/Ionic Liquids for the Extraction of Phenolic Compounds from Aqueous Medium Introduction Applications Imidazolium-Based Hydrophobic ILs for the Extraction of Phenolic Compounds Nonaromatic Hydrophobic ILs for the Extraction of Phenolic Compounds Hydrophobic Magnetic ILs for the Extraction of Phenolic Compounds Summary and Outlook Cross-References Acknowledgment References Mean-Field Theory of the Electrical Double Layer in Ionic Liquids Introduction General Formalism Neat Ionic Liquids Local Density Approximation Beyond the Local Density Approximation Solvents and Mixtures Underscreening and Beyond Cross-References References Melting Point of Ionic Liquids Introduction Determination of Melting Point of Ionic Liquids (Tm) Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Method Effect of Structural Features on Melting Point (Tm) of IONIC Liquids Effect of Alkyl Chain Length Effect of Ionic Components Prediction of Melting Point Through Structure-Property Correlation Prediction of Melting Point from Molecular Dynamics Simulations References Metal Ion-Containing Ionic Liquid Catalysts on Solid Supports for Organic Reactions Introduction Metal Ion-Containing Imidazolium Salts [25, 38] Immobilization Metal Ion-Containing Ionic Liquid Catalysts [26] Preparation of Immobilized Metal Ion-Containing Ionic Liquids (ImmM_IL) EXAFS Analysis Kharasch Addition Reaction Suzuki Cross-Coupling Reactions by ImmPd2+_IL Suzuki Cross-Coupling Reaction with Ni Catalyst Carbonylation Reactions [11] Alkoxycarbonylation Phenoxy Carbonylation Aminocarbonylation Carbonylative Suzuki Cross-Coupling Reaction [10] One Step Synthesis of Isoindole-1,3-Diones by Carbonylative Cyclization Reaction Synthesis of Oxamate and Urea by Oxidative Single and Double Carbonylation of Amines Synthesis of Polyesteramides by Carbonylation-Polycondensation Reaction of Aromatic Diiodides and Amino Alcohols [27] Summary Cross-References References Metal-Containing Ionic Liquid Introduction Synthesis of Metal-Containing Ionic Liquids Metal Ions in Anions Metal Ions in Cation Supported Metal-Containing Ionic Liquids Characterization Structure Characterization NMR FT-IR Raman Uv-Vis MS Determination Acidity Magnetic Characterization Conclusion Cross-References References Methods for Biodegradability and Toxicity Assessment of Ionic Liquid Introduction Methods for Biodegradation Assays of ILs DOC Die-Away Test (OECD 301 A) Modified Sturm Test (OECD 301 B) Closed Bottle Test (OECD 301 D) Manometric Respirometry Test (OECD 301 F) CO2 Headspace Test (ISO 14593) Methods for Toxicity Assessment of ILs Toxicity Test In Vivo: Acute Toxicity Test Subchronic Toxicity Test Chronic Toxicity Test Toxicity Test In Vitro Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (QSAR) Summary References Migration and Mobility of Ionic Liquids (ILs) in Soil Introduction Mechanism of Sorption Preliminary Studies Multilayer Model Application of HPLC Thermodynamics Column Tests Modeling and Chemometrics Structural ILs Variations Conclusions Cross-References References Modeling Methods of Ionic Liquids at Charged Electrode Surfaces Introduction References Modeling of Dicationic Ionic Liquids Introduction Definition Overview Basic Methodology Molecular Dynamics Simulations Density Functional Theory (DFT) Calculations Key Research Findings Modeling of Pure DILs Modeling of DILs/Solvent Mixtures Modeling of DIL-Based Interfaces Future Directions for Research Cross-References References Molecular Composites Based on Ionic Liquids Introduction RTIL-Based Polymeric Ion Gels RTIL-Based Ionic Polyimide Composites Perspectives Cross-References References Molecular Modeling of the Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Ionic Liquid-Water Mixtures Introduction Force Fields and Methods Thermodynamics and Structure Transport Properties Summary References Molten Salt in Hydrogenation Morpholinium Ionic Liquids and Piperazinium Ionic Liquids Introduction Morpholinium Ionic Liquids Synthesis [N-C3OHmMOR][NTf2] [Mor1,4][BF4] [Mor1,2][Br] [HEMMor][BF4] [HEMM][Cl] [Mor1,16][BF4] [HEMMor][BF4] [C1-Mor-C1OC8][Cl] N-Methoxyethoxyethyl-N-methylmorpholine Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide Salt Ionic Liquid N-Methyl-N-sulfomorpholine Hydrochloride Ionic Liquid Characterization 1H NMR UV-Vis DSC FT-IR XRD Piperazinium Ionic Liquid Synthesis [PipBs1]3-PW [TMG][Lac] [(PS)2pi][HSO4]2 [Pi] [HSO4]2 [DMSBP] [HSO4] N-(1-acryloyl)-N-(4-cyclopentyl)piperazine Dihydrogen Phosphate (Ionic Liquid) [C2pi][Lac] [C2C1C14pi][Br] [C1C14pi][BF4]2 Characterization 1H NMR UV-Vis TGA FT-IR Summary and Prospects References N New Liquid Components in Formulation of Food Supplements Introduction Ionic Liquids as a Food Supplement Selection of Biocompatible Cation and Anion Toxicity Investigation Physicochemical Properties Conclusion Cross-References References Nontoxic Ionic Liquids: Emerging Substitute for Classical Antimicrobial Materials Introduction Classification Physicochemical Properties Biological Properties Toxicity and Hazardous Property Synthesis of Antimicrobial Ionic Liquids Antimicrobial Activities of Ionic Liquids Summary Cross-References Acknowledgment References Nucleophilic Substitution P Palladium-Catalyzed Carbonylation Reactions in Ionic Liquids Introduction Carbonylation of Aryl and Alkenyl Halides Carbonylation of Alkenes and Alkynes Oxidative Carbonylation Reductive Carbonylation Miscellaneous Carbonylation Conclusion References Phosphonium Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Phosphonium ILs Formation of the Phosphonium Salts Anion Exchange Synthesis of Phosphonium-Based TSILs Synthesis of Phosphonium ILs with Specific Groups Synthesis of Functionalized Phosphonium Cations Synthesis of Anion-Functionalized Phosphonium ILs Synthesis of Bifunctionalized Phosphonium ILs Synthesis of Zwitterionic Phosphonium ILs Synthesis of Chiral Phosphonium ILs Synthesis of Supported Phosphonium ILs In Situ Formation of Phosphonium ILs on Support Surface Immobilization of Presynthesized Phosphonium ILs on Support Synthesis of Phosphonium-Based Polymeric ILs Characterization of Phosphonium ILs Summary Cross-References References Photocatalytic Reduction of CO2 in Ionic Liquid Introduction Basic Processes and Principles of CO2 Photoreduction Background Thermodynamics and Kinetics of CO2 Photoreduction ILs for CO2 Capture and CO2 Photoreduction ILs for CO2 Capture ILs for CO2 Photoreduction Conclusion and Perspectives Cross-References Acknowledgment References pKa in Ionic Liquids Introduction pKa Determination in ILs by Electrochemical Methods pKa Determination in ILs by UV-Vis Spectroscopic Methods Cross-References References Poly(Ionic Liquid)s Introduction Synthesis of Poly(Ionic Liquid)s Free Radical Polymerization Living/Controlled Radical Polymerization Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (ATRP) Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization (RAFT) Cobalt-Mediated Radical Polymerization (CMRP) Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) Ion Pairs Are Formed In Situ in the Polymerization Post-modification of Neutral Polymer Chains Characterization Methods of Poly(Ionic Liquid)s Applications of Poly(Ionic Liquid)s Cross-References References Polyoxometalate-Based Ionic Liquid Catalysis for Carbon Dioxide Conversion Definition Scientific Fundamentals Basic Definitions About the POM-Based IL Introduction to the POM CO2 Activation by POM-Based IL 1 Metal-Carbon Mode η1-OCO Linear Coordination Mode Key Applications in CO2 Conversion Cycloaddition of CO2 to Organic Substrates Cycloaddition of CO2 to Epoxides Incorporation of CO2 into Heterocycle Reduction of CO2 Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Photochemical CO2 Reduction References Potential Threats of Ionic Liquids to the Environment and Ecosphere Introduction The Path of ILs Toward Threatening the Soil Ecosphere Sources and Transport Bioavailability in the Soil Matrix Interaction of ILs with the Biota IL Toxicity IL Biodegradability Predictive Methods as a Tool for IL Design Summary of Trends in IL Toxicity and Biodegradability Ruling the Application of QSAR Searching for the Ideal IL, the Least Environmentally Hazardous, Still Up to the Function Cross-References Acknowledgment References Predicting the Environmental Fate of Ionic Liquids Introduction Water Solubility Sorption and logKow Diffusion Environmental Fate of Ionic Liquids Conclusions Cross-References References Pretreatment and Conversion of Shrimp/Crab Shells into High-Value Products with Ionic Liquids Introduction Structure of Shrimp/Crab Shells Preparation of Chitin from Shrimp/Crab Shells Using Ionic Liquid Extraction Method for Chitin Preparation Pulping Method for Chitin Preparation Conversion of Shrimp/Crab Shells into Functional Chitin Solubility of IL/DES on Chitin Conversion of Chitin into Functional Chitin with IL Conversion of Shrimp Shells into Functional Chitin with DES The Opportunity and Challenge of the Shrimp/Crab Utilization Using IL/DES References Product and Solvent Recovery in Ionic Liquid-Based Biomass Pretreatment Processes Introduction Overview of IL-Based Biomass Processing Typical Product and IL Recovery Schemes IL Chemistry Determines the Recovery Process Design Typical IL-Based Pretreatment Process Schemes Strategies of Product and IL Separation for Cellulose-Dissolving ILs Product and IL Recovery for Lignin-Selective Dissolving ILs Product and IL Recovery When Integrated with Catalytic Conversion Typical Process Schemes Using Hydrophobic IL New Developments in IL Separation Technology Electrodialysis Pervaporation Wiped-Film Distillation Summary and Perspectives Cross-References References Pyridinium Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Pyridinium ILs Synthesis of Lewis Acidic Pyridinium ILs Synthesis of Lewis Basic Pyridinium ILs Synthesis of Brønsted Acidic Pyridinium ILs Synthesis of Brønsted Basic Pyridinium ILs Synthesis of Chiral Pyridinium ILs Characterization of Pyridinium ILs Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) Ultraviolet Spectrum (UV) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Mass Spectrum (MS) Determination of Thermodynamic Properties of Pyridinium ILs The Acidity of ILs References Pyrrolidinium Ionic Liquids and Piperidinium Ionic Liquids Introduction Pyrrolidinium Ionic Liquids Synthesis Characterization 1H NMR PGSE-NMR UV/Vis TGA DMA FTIR DSC X-ray Piperidinium Ionic Liquids Synthesis Characterization TGA DSC X-ray 1H NMR Rotary Rheometer DMA Summary and Prospects References Q Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships to Estimate Toxicity of Ionic Liquids (ILs) Introduction QSAR for Enzymes QSAR for the Response of Bacteria QSAR for the Response of Animal Cells QSAR for the Response of the Crustacean Daphnia magna Comprehensive QSAR Model Cross-References Acknowledgment References Quasi-chemisorption by Ionic Liquids Through Quasi-chemical Interaction Introduction Quasi-chemisorption Quasi-chemical Interaction Quasi-chemisorption by Ionic Liquids Summary Cross-References References R Refractive Index of Ionic Liquids Introduction Measuring Refractive Index of ILs Factors Affecting Refractive Index of ILs Theoretical Predicting Refractive Index of ILs Applications References Regeneration, Recovery, and Removal of Ionic Liquids Definition Introduction Critical Review of the Possibilities for the Reuse, Recovery, and Removal of Ionic Liquids State of Knowledge Regarding Ionic Liquids Registered Under the REACH Legislation 3-Butyl-1-methylimidazolium Chloride (BMIM Cl) 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Methanesulfonate (EMIM MeSO3) 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate (EMIM BF4) Tetraalkylammonium Sulfate (Ammoeng 102) 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Acetate (EMIM Acetate) Lithium Tetrafluoroborate (Li BF4) Current Trends in the Reuse, Recovery, and Removal of Ionic Liquids Conclusions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Role of Ionic Liquids as Green and Ecological Corrosion Inhibitors Introduction Ionic Liquids as Corrosion Inhibitors Influence Factor of Inhibition Performance Anions Chain Length of Alkyl The Type of Substituent Future Prospects References Room Temperature Ionic Liquid in Hydrogenation S Scale-Up of the Ionic Liquid-Based Biomass Conversion Processes Introduction Process Configurations of IL Pretreatment Conventional Process with Water Wash One-Pot Biomass Conversion: Acidolysis Process One-Pot Biomass Conversion: Bionic Liquid Process Application of the Residual Lignin Fraction Outlook and Perspectives References Selective Dissolution of Biomass with Ionic Liquids Introduction Dissolution of Cellulose in Ionic Liquids Early Study with Chloride Salts Strategy to Design Ionic Liquids to Dissolve Cellulose Under Ambient Condition Dissolution and Extraction of Cellulose from Plant Biomass Dissolution of Lignin in Ionic Liquids Strategy to Design Ionic Liquids to Dissolve Lignin Effect of Water Effect of Hydrogen Peroxide Dissolution and Extraction of Lignin from Plant Biomass Dissolution of Plant Biomass in Ionic Liquids Derivatives Dissolution of Lignin in Organic Onium Hydroxide Aqueous Solution Dissolution of Biomass in Organic Onium Hydroxide Aqueous Solution Is Water Addition Effective to Separate Cellulose and Lignin After Dissolution of Woody Biomass? Conversion of Lignin to Valuable Compounds Conclusion Cross-References References SIL, Supported Ionic Liquid SILLP, Supported Ionic Liquid-Like Phase SILP, Supported Ionic Liquid Phase Solubility of Polymers in Ionic Liquids Introduction Dissolution of Biopolymers in Ionic Liquids Dissolution of Synthetic Polymers in Ionic Liquids References Spatial Heterogeneity Structure Aggregation Structure Heterogeneity in Ionic Liquids Synonyms Definition Introduction Scientific Fundamentals Experimental Measurement Computational Simulation Structure Function Heterogeneity Oder Parameter Summary Outlook References Structure Segregation Sulfonium Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Sulfonium ILs Formation of the Sulfonium Salts Anion Exchange Synthesis of Functionalized Sulfonium ILs Synthesis of Sulfonium ILs with Specific Groups Synthesis of Functionalized Sulfonium Cations Synthesis of Anion-Functionalized Sulfonium ILs Synthesis of Chiral Sulfonium Salts Synthesis of Chiral Sulfonium Salts Synthesis of Supported Sulfonium ILs Synthesis of Sulfonium-Based Polymeric ILs Characterization of Sulfonium ILs Summary Cross-References References Supported Ionic Liquids Introduction Synthesis of Supported ILs Silica-Supported ILs (SSILs) Noncovalent Preparation of SSILs Covalent Preparation of the SSILs Polymer-Supported Ionic Liquids (PSILs) Noncovalent Preparation of PSILs Covalent Preparation of PSILs Carbon Nanomaterials Supported ILs (CNMSILs) Noncovalent Preparation of CNMSILs Covalent Preparation of CNMSILs MOF-Supported ILs (MSILs) Noncovalent Preparation of MSILs Covalent Preparation of MSILs Clay-Supported ILs (CSILs) Noncovalent Preparation of CSILs Covalent Preparation of CSILs Summary Cross-References References Surface Tension of Ionic Liquids Introduction Definition of Surface Tension Measurement Methods for Surface Tension Experimental Methods Estimation Factors Affecting Effect of the Cation Effect of Cationic Head Group Effect of the Anion Effect of Temperature Effect of Water Contents and Other Impurities Surface Tension of Ionic Liquid Mixtures or Solutions Solvent Component Effects Temperature Effects Surface Properties of Ionic Liquids Related Thermodynamic Properties Cross-References References Surfactant Behavior of Ionic Liquids Involving a Drug Introduction Background Results and Discussion Synthesis and Characterization of Different Aggregated Nanostructures Conventional Surfactant Derived Aggregated Structures IL-Surfactant-Based Aggregated Nanostructures IL-IL-Based Aggregated Nanostructures IL-Biomolecules Aggregated Nanostructures Different IL Systems Involving Drug Molecules IL-Drug Assembly and Drug-Containing ILs Drug Molecules Inside the ILs Forming Assemblies Conclusion References Synthesis of Polymers in Ionic Liquids Introduction Free Radical Polymerization Ring Opening Polymerization Cationic Polymerization Anionic Polymerization Condensation Polymerization Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (ATRP) Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) Polymerization Concluding Remarks References T Task-Specific Ionic Liquids (TSILs) Task-Specific Ionic Liquids: Design, Properties, and Applications Scientific Fundamentals Application of TSILs TSIL-Based Ligands for Organometallic Catalysis Task-Specific Ionic Liquids as Catalysts in Multicomponent Reactions Miscellaneous Reactions Outlook References Terrestrial Toxicity of Ionic Liquids Introduction Terrestrial Phytotoxicity of ILs Toxic Effects of ILs on Soil Plants Chemical Structures Affecting IL Terrestrial Phytotoxicity Terrestrial Animal Toxicities of ILs Toxic Effects of ILs on Soil Animals (Eisenia foetida) Chemical Structures Affecting IL Terrestrial Phytotoxicity Conclusions and Prospects References Thermal Stability of Ionic Liquids Introduction Definition of Decomposition and Evaporation Instruments Measuring Decomposition and Evaporation Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography (PGC) Mass Spectrometry (MS) Infrared Spectrometry (IR) Quartz Crystal Microbalance Microbalance Knudsen Effusion Apparatus (KEQCM) Ultrafast Scanning Calorimetry (UFSC) Distillation Apparatus Potentiometric Titration Parameters Evaluating Decomposition and Evaporation Mass Loss Percentage Onset Temperature (Tonset) Start Temperature (Tstart) Peak Temperature (Tpeak) Vapor Pressure Enthalpy Temperature for 10% Mass Loss at 10 h (T0.1/10 h) Factors Affecting Decomposition and Evaporation Chemical Structure Methods Temperature Pressure Time Catalysts and Other Substances Surface Area Atmosphere Flowing Rate Sample Mass Heating Rate Models Predicting Decomposition and Evaporation Quantitative Structure-Property Relationship (QSPR) Group Contribution Method Quantum Chemical Calculation Correlation with Physical Properties and Spectra Parameters COSMO-RS Kinetics of Decomposition and Evaporation Mass Loss Rate (K) Activation Energy (Ea) Pre-exponential Coefficient (A) Mechanism Explaining Decomposition and Evaporation Decomposition vs. Evaporation Elimination vs. Nucleophilic Substitution (SN1 and SN2) References Thiazolium Ionic Liquids, Synthesis, Properties, and Applications Introduction Synthesis Properties Application Conclusion Cross-References Acknowledgment References Transformation of CO2 into Value-Added Chemicals in Ionic Liquids Introduction CO2 Conversion to CO Electrochemical Conversion of CO2 to CO Photocatalytic Conversion of CO2 to CO Chemical Conversion of CO2 to CO CO2 Conversion to Formic Acids Reactions of CO2 with Other Molecules Conversion of CO2 to Cyclic Carbonates Conversion of CO2 to Dialkyl Carbonates Reactions of CO2 with Amines, Alkenes, and Aminobenzonitriles Conversion of CO2 to Polymers Conversion of CO2 to Polycarbonates Conversion of CO2 to Polyethylene Conclusions and Future Directions Cross-References References Transition Metal-Catalyzed Coupling Reaction in Ionic Liquids Introduction Transition Metal-Catalyzed Coupling Reaction in ILs Palladium-Catalyzed Coupling Reaction in ILs Copper-Catalyzed Coupling Reaction in ILs Nickel-Catalyzed Coupling Reaction in ILs Iron-/Ruthenium-/Cobalt-Catalyzed Coupling Reaction in ILs References Trizxolium Ionic Liquids and Tetrazolium Ionic Liquids Introduction Trizxolium Ionic Liquids Tetrazolium Ionic Liquids Summary Cross-References Reference V Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium of Ionic Liquids Introduction Separation of the Liquid Mixtures Azeotropic Binary Systems Ethanol-Water Water-Alcohol Ester-Alcohol Aliphatic-Aromatic Separation Alcohol-Acetonitrile Cetone-Alcohol Ethanol-Dimethyl Carbonate Methanol-Tetrahydrofuran Ethanol-Chloroform Absorption Cycle Applications Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Properties of ILs Modeling of Vapor-Liquid Equilibria of ILs Cross-References References Viscosity of Ionic Liquids Introduction Effects of Ionic Structures on Viscosities of ILs Correlation and Prediction Challenges and Opportunities References