Fault detection

Description

Graphene - Fundamentals and Emergent Applications ......Page 1 1 - Introduction ......Page 2 1.1. About the book......Page 4 References......Page 5 2.1. Graphene......Page 6 2.2. Bilayer, Trilayer and Few-layer Graphene......Page 11 2.3. Relationship of Graphene to Carbon Nanotubes......Page 13 2.4.1. Introduction......Page 17 2.4.2. Boron Nitride Nanosheets......Page 18 2.4.3. Transition Metal Dichalcogenides......Page 21 2.4.4. Transition Metal Oxides......Page 24 2.4.5. Silicene......Page 26 2.4.6. Graphene Oxide and Reduced Graphene Oxide......Page 29 2.4.7. Graphane and Fluorographene......Page 33 2.5.1. Introduction......Page 34 2.5.2. Patterning Graphene via Lithography......Page 35 2.5.3. Sonochemical Cutting of Graphene......Page 41 2.5.4. Crystallographically Selective Structuring of Graphene Through Anisotropic Etching......Page 42 2.5.5. Graphene Nanoribbon Formation by ‘Unzipping’ Carbon Nanotubes......Page 46 2.5.6. Bottom-up Fabrication of Graphene Nanostructures......Page 48 References......Page 50 5.2.1. Introduction......Page 61 3.1.2. The Band Structure of Graphene......Page 62 3.1.3.1. Modulation of Carrier Density with Gate Voltage......Page 64 3.1.3.2. Mobility and Density of Carriers......Page 66 3.1.3.3. Quantum Hall Effect......Page 67 3.1.3.4. Klein Tunnelling......Page 68 3.1.3.5. Graphene Nano-ribbons......Page 69 References......Page 71 3.2.1. Introduction......Page 73 3.2.2. Covalent Functionalisation of Graphene......Page 74 3.2.3. Noncovalent Functionalisation of Graphene......Page 80 3.2.4. Summary......Page 83 References......Page 84 3.3.1. Introduction......Page 86 3.3.2. Spin and Magnetism in Graphite......Page 87 3.3.3. Magnetism and Spin in Graphene......Page 88 3.3.4. Summary......Page 95 References......Page 97 3.4.1. Elastic Properties and Intrinsic Strength......Page 99 3.4.2. Adhesion, Tearing and Cracking of Graphene......Page 102 3.4.3.1. Vacancies......Page 103 3.4.4.1. Graphene Oxide......Page 104 3.4.4.3. Fluorographene and Graphane......Page 106 3.4.4.4. Polycrystalline Graphene......Page 108 3.4.4.6. Graphene Paper......Page 109 3.4.5. Graphene-based Composites......Page 110 References......Page 111 3.5.1. Thermal Conductivity......Page 114 3.5.1.1. Primary Phonon Modes Carrying Heat in Graphene......Page 118 3.5.1.2. Thermal Conductivity in Few-layer Graphene......Page 119 3.5.1.3. Extrinsic Effects on the Thermal Conductivity of Graphene......Page 120 3.5.1.4. Lattice Thermal Properties of Graphene......Page 122 References......Page 125 4.1.1. Introduction to Mechanical Exfoliation......Page 128 4.1.2. Micromechanical Exfoliation......Page 129 4.1.3. Mechanical Cleavage of Graphite......Page 133 6.1.5. Strain Engineering a Band Gap......Page 134 References......Page 135 4.2.1. Introduction to Chemical Exfoliation......Page 136 4.2.2.1. Non-aqueous Solvents......Page 137 4.2.2.2. Surfactant-assisted Dispersions......Page 142 4.2.3. Different Types of Graphite......Page 146 4.2.4. Different Types of Solvents......Page 147 4.2.5. Different Types of Sonication......Page 149 4.2.6. How to Characterise Chemically Exfoliated Graphene......Page 150 6.1.12. Radio-Frequency (RF) Electronics......Page 342 4.2.8. Summary......Page 152 References......Page 153 4.3.1.1. Hummers Method for Graphite Oxide (Hummers and Offeman, 1958)......Page 154 4.3.2. Chemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide......Page 155 4.3.4. Electrochemical Reduction of Graphene Oxide......Page 158 4.3.5. Summary......Page 159 References ......Page 161 4.4.2. Solution-based approaches......Page 162 4.4.3. Solubilisation Strategies......Page 163 4.4.4. Solvothermal Synthesis and sonication......Page 165 4.4.5. Chemo-thermal based Approaches......Page 166 4.4.6. Self-assembly of Graphene Oxide Nanosheets......Page 169 References......Page 170 4.5.2. Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) Basics......Page 172 4.5.3. Substrate Selection......Page 173 4.5.4. Substrate Pre-treatment......Page 174 4.5.5. Graphene Over Ni and Cu......Page 175 4.5.6. Early Growth......Page 176 4.5.8. Graphene–other Metals and Alloys......Page 183 4.5.9. Segregation routes......Page 185 References......Page 186 4.6.1. Introduction......Page 188 4.6.2. Aspects to Consider with Nonmetal Catalysts......Page 189 4.6.3. Non-metals as Catalysts for CVD grown Graphene......Page 190 4.6.5. Non-metals as Catalysts for Carbon Nanowall Fabrication (vertical graphene)......Page 194 4.6.6. The Basics of Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition......Page 195 4.6.7. Nanowall or Nanosheet Synthesis......Page 196 4.6.9. Graphene Formation from Solid-carbon Sources on Surfaces......Page 197 References......Page 200 4.7.1. Introduction......Page 203 4.7.2. Reaction Protocol......Page 204 4.7.3. Nucleation and Growth......Page 205 4.7.4. Epitaxial Graphene on the Sic (0001) Face......Page 206 4.7.5. Face to Face Growth......Page 207 4.7.6. Laser-induced Growth of Epitaxial Graphene......Page 208 4.7.7. Epitaxial Graphene on the SiC (0001¯) Face......Page 209 4.7.9. Graphene Synthesis on Cubic SiC/Si Wafers......Page 211 4.7.11. SiC/Metal Hybrid Systems for Graphene Formation......Page 212 References......Page 213 4.8.2. Transfer of Mechanically Exfoliated Graphene to Arbitrary Substrates......Page 215 4.8.3. Transfer of CVD-grown Graphene on Metals to Arbitrary Substrates......Page 218 4.8.4. Transfer of Graphene Grown on SiC......Page 222 4.8.5. Towards a Universal Transfer Route for Graphene Grown on Arbitrary Substrates......Page 224 4.8.6. Summary......Page 225 References......Page 226 5.1. Optical Microscopy......Page 228 References......Page 236 5.2. Raman Spectroscopy......Page 237 References......Page 245 5.3. Scanning Electron Microscopy......Page 247 References......Page 252 5.4.1. Introduction......Page 253 5.4.2. Atomic Resolution Imaging (TEM/STEM) and Atomic Scale Spectroscopy (EELS)......Page 255 5.4.3. Surface Contamination......Page 258 5.4.4. Determining the Number of Layers Through (Scanning) Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 260 5.4.5. Characterisation of Defects in Graphene......Page 264 5.4.6. Characterisation of Graphene Edges......Page 271 5.4.7. In-situ Manipulation of Graphene in a TEM......Page 275 References......Page 276 5.5.1. Introduction......Page 279 5.5.2. Determining the Number of Layers Using Electron Diffraction......Page 280 5.5.3. Determining the Graphene Topography......Page 283 5.5.4. Determination of Stacking Order and Identification of Rotational Stacking Faults......Page 286 5.5.5. Low-energy Electron Diffraction......Page 291 References......Page 293 5.6.1. Introduction to Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy......Page 295 5.6.2. STM Studies of Graphite......Page 297 5.6.3. STM of Graphene on Metals......Page 298 5.6.4. STM of Graphene on Insulators......Page 303 5.6.5. Summary......Page 305 References......Page 306 5.7.1. Introduction......Page 308 5.7.2. Graphene on Different Surfaces......Page 309 5.7.4. AFM as a Tool to Investigate and Engineer Physical Properties......Page 312 5.7 References......Page 318 5.8.1. Introduction to the Hall Effect......Page 320 5.8.2. Measurement of the Hall Mobility on Graphene Samples......Page 321 5.8.3. Measurement of the Field effect Mobility in Graphene......Page 324 5.8.4. Maximising Mobility......Page 325 5.8.4.1. Ensuring Clean Graphene, the Effects of Annealing......Page 326 5.8.4.2. Minimising Substrate Interactions......Page 327 5.8 References......Page 330 6.1.2. Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)......Page 332 6.1.3. The Graphene MOSFET......Page 335 6.1.6. Field Induced Band Gap in Bilayer Graphene......Page 337 6.1.7. Graphene Nanoribbons......Page 338 6.1.9. The Optimisation of Mobility......Page 339 6.1.10. Deposition of a High-κ Gate Dielectric and Low-Resistance Metal Contacts......Page 340 6.1.11. The Viability of Graphene in CMOS......Page 341 6.1.13. Novel Field Effect Transistor Designs......Page 343 6.1.14. Gas Sensors......Page 344 References......Page 345 6.2.2. Magnetoresistance using Carbon Nanotubes......Page 351 6.2.3. Magnetoresistance using Graphene......Page 356 References......Page 364 6.3. Transparent Conducting Electrodes......Page 365 References......Page 379 6.4.1.1. Actuation and Detection......Page 383 6.4.1.2. Quality Factor......Page 384 6.4.2. Graphene Electromechanical Resonators......Page 385 6.4.2.1. Graphene-Based Cantilever Nanoelectromechanical Devices......Page 389 6.4.2.2. Graphene-Based Sensors, Switches and Actuators......Page 392 References......Page 395 6.5.1. Free-Standing Graphene as the Ultimate Microscope Slide......Page 396 6.5.1.1. Examining Atoms and Molecules on Graphene......Page 397 6.5.1.2. Examining Nanoparticles on Graphene......Page 399 6.5.2. Graphene as a Template for Catalyst-Free Graphene Fabrication by Electrons......Page 401 6.5.2.2. Templated Graphene Growth with an Electron Current......Page 402 6.5.3. Free-Standing Graphene as a Subnanometer Trans-Electrode Membrane......Page 404 6.5.4. Permeability of Free-Standing Graphene......Page 405 References......Page 406 6.6.1. Graphene Based Materials in Supercapacitors......Page 408 6.6.2.1. Chemically Reduced Graphene Oxide......Page 410 6.6.2.3. Graphene-Based Hydrogel......Page 411 6.6.2.4. Activated Graphene and Intercalated Graphene......Page 412 6.6.3.1. Graphene-Conducting Polymer Composite Electrodes......Page 413 6.6.3.2. Graphene-Metal Oxide and Hydroxide Composite Electrodes......Page 414 6.6.4.1. Graphene Anodes......Page 415 6.6.4.3. Graphene as an Electrode Additive......Page 416 6.6.5. Graphene-Based Materials in Fuel Cells......Page 417 6.6.6. Graphene-Based Materials in Solar Cells......Page 418 References......Page 420 6.7.1. Graphene-Based Composites......Page 424 6.7.2. Ex Situ Polymerisation......Page 426 6.7.3. In Situ Polymerization......Page 433 References......Page 434 A......Page 437 C......Page 438 D......Page 439 F......Page 440 G......Page 441 I......Page 442 M......Page 443 P......Page 444 S......Page 445 T......Page 446 U......Page 447 Z......Page 448