Ecology: The Economy of Nature

Description

This landmark text helped to define introductory ecology courses for over four decades. The text?maintains its signature evolutionary perspective and emphasis on the quantitative aspects of the field, but it has been improved for today's undergraduates--with extensive new pedagogy, including Learning Goals, Concept Checks, fresh examples and fully integrated media resources. Students will especially appreciate the new video tutorials that accompany the Analyzing Ecology essays. Cover Page......Page 2 Halftitle Page......Page 3 Title Page......Page 4 Copyright Page......Page 5 Brief Contents......Page 7 Contents......Page 10 About the Authors......Page 40 Preface......Page 43 Acknowledgments......Page 51 Halftitle Page......Page 56 Searching for Life at the Bottom of the Ocean......Page 57 Individuals......Page 63 Populations and Species......Page 64 Communities......Page 65 Ecosystems......Page 66 The Biosphere......Page 68 Studying Ecology at Different Levels of Organization......Page 69 Conservation of Matter and Energy......Page 73 Dynamic Steady States......Page 74 Evolution......Page 77 Broad Evolutionary Patterns......Page 81 Categorizing Species Based on Sources of Energy......Page 89 Types of Species Interactions......Page 90 Habitat versus Niche......Page 95 Observations, Hypotheses, and Predictions......Page 100 Testing Hypotheses with Manipulative Experiments......Page 102 Alternative Approaches to Manipulative Experiments......Page 107 Analyzing Ecology: Why Do We Calculate Means and Variances?......Page 109 1.5 Humans Influence Ecological Systems......Page 114 The Role of Ecologists......Page 116 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 117 The California Sea Otter......Page 118 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 125 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 127 Part I: Life and the Physical Environment......Page 129 The Evolution of Whales......Page 130 Thermal Properties of Water......Page 135 Density and Viscosity of Water......Page 137 Dissolved Inorganic Nutrients......Page 140 The Challenge of Salt and Water Balance......Page 150 Adaptations for Osmoregulation in Freshwater Animals......Page 151 Adaptations for Osmoregulation in Saltwater Animals......Page 153 Adaptations for Osmoregulation in Aquatic Plants......Page 156 Analyzing Ecology: Standard Deviation and Standard Error......Page 157 Carbon Dioxide......Page 162 Oxygen......Page 165 Heat and Biological Molecules......Page 170 Cold Temperatures and Freezing......Page 173 Thermal Optima......Page 175 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 176 The Decline of Coral Reefs......Page 177 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 184 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 186 Graphing the Data: Determining Q10 Values in Salmon......Page 188 The Evolution of Camels......Page 189 Soil Structure and Water-Holding Capacity......Page 193 Osmotic Pressure and Water Uptake......Page 199 Transpiration and the Cohesion–Tension Theory......Page 201 Available and Absorbed Solar Energy......Page 206 Photosynthesis......Page 210 Structural Adaptations to Water Stress......Page 216 3.3 Terrestrial Environments Pose a Challenge for Animals to Balance Water, Salt, and Nitrogen......Page 220 Water and Salt Balance in Animals......Page 221 Water and Nitrogen Balance in Animals......Page 225 Analyzing Ecology: Understanding the Different Types of Variables......Page 226 Sources of Heat Gain and Loss......Page 229 Body Size and Thermal Inertia......Page 233 Thermoregulation......Page 234 Ectotherms......Page 235 Endotherms......Page 237 Adaptations of the Circulatory System......Page 238 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 240 The Challenge of Growing Cotton......Page 241 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 246 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 248 Graphing the Data: Relating Mass to Surface Area and Volume......Page 249 The Fine-Tuned Phenotypes of Frogs......Page 250 Temporal Environmental Variation......Page 255 Spatial Environmental Variation......Page 256 Phenotypic Trade-Offs......Page 257 Environmental Cues......Page 260 Response Speed and Reversibility......Page 261 Enemies......Page 263 Competition for Scarce Resources......Page 267 Mates......Page 270 Temperature......Page 273 Water Availability......Page 275 Salinity......Page 277 Oxygen......Page 278 Migration......Page 280 Storage......Page 282 Dormancy......Page 284 Analyzing Ecology: Correlations......Page 287 Adaptations to Prevent Freezing......Page 290 4.5 Variation in Food Quality and Quantity Is the Basis of Optimal Foraging Theory......Page 292 Central Place Foraging......Page 293 Risk-Sensitive Foraging......Page 296 Optimal Diet Composition......Page 299 Diet Mixing......Page 300 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 301 Responding to Novel Environmental Variation......Page 302 Summary of Chapter Concepts......Page 307 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 309 Graphing the Data: The Foraging Behavior of American Robins......Page 310 Where Does Your Garden Grow?......Page 311 The Greenhouse Effect......Page 315 Greenhouse Gases......Page 316 The Path and Angle of the Sun......Page 319 Seasonal Heating of Earth......Page 321 Analyzing Ecology: Regressions......Page 323 Properties of Air......Page 326 Formation of Atmospheric Convection Currents......Page 328 Earth’s Rotation and the Coriolis Effect......Page 332 5.4 Ocean Currents Also Affect the Distribution of Climates......Page 336 Gyres......Page 337 Upwelling......Page 338 The El Niño–Southern Oscillation......Page 339 Thermohaline Circulation......Page 341 Rain Shadows......Page 344 Soil Formation......Page 348 Weathering......Page 350 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 355 Global Climate Change......Page 356 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 362 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 365 Graphing the Data: Precipitation in Mexico City, Quito, and La Paz......Page 366 The World of Wine......Page 367 6.1 Terrestrial Biomes Are Categorized by Their Major Plant Growth Forms......Page 371 Climate Diagrams......Page 374 Analyzing Ecology: Mean, Median, and Mode......Page 375 Tundras......Page 378 Boreal Forests......Page 380 Temperate Rainforests......Page 382 Temperate Seasonal Forests......Page 384 Woodlands/Shrublands......Page 386 Temperate Grasslands/Cold Deserts......Page 388 Tropical Rainforests......Page 390 Tropical Seasonal Forests/Savannas......Page 393 Subtropical Deserts......Page 395 Streams and Rivers......Page 398 Ponds and Lakes......Page 400 Freshwater Wetlands......Page 405 Salt Marshes/Estuaries......Page 407 Mangrove Swamps......Page 408 Intertidal Zones......Page 409 Coral Reefs......Page 410 The Open Ocean......Page 411 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 412 Changing Biome Boundaries......Page 413 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 417 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 419 Graphing the Data: Creating a Climate Diagram......Page 420 Part II: Organisms......Page 421 Favoring Flightless Birds......Page 422 Genes and Alleles......Page 426 Dominant and Recessive Alleles......Page 429 Sources of Genetic Variation......Page 431 7.2 Evolution Can Occur Through Random Processes or Through Selection......Page 434 Evolution Through Random Processes......Page 435 Evolution Through Selection, a Nonrandom Process......Page 442 Analyzing Ecology: Strength of Selection, Heritability, and Response to Selection......Page 447 Artificial Selection......Page 450 Natural Selection......Page 453 Phylogenetic Trees......Page 458 Allopatric Speciation......Page 459 Sympatric Speciation......Page 463 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 465 Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis......Page 466 Summary of Chapter Concepts......Page 471 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 473 Graphing the Data: Natural Selection of Finch Beaks......Page 474 The Many Ways to Make a Frog......Page 475 8.1 Life History Traits Represent the Schedule of an Organism’s Life......Page 478 The Slow-to-Fast Life History Continuum......Page 479 Combinations of Life History Traits in Plants......Page 481 The Principle of Allocation......Page 485 Offspring Number versus Offspring Size......Page 486 Offspring Number versus Parental Care......Page 487 Analyzing Ecology: Coefficients of Determination......Page 488 Fecundity and Parental Care versus Parental Survival......Page 494 Growth versus Age of Sexual Maturity and Life Span......Page 496 Semelparity and Iteroparity......Page 500 Senescence......Page 504 Stimuli for Change......Page 508 The Effects of Resources......Page 509 The Effects of Predation......Page 510 The Effects of Global Warming......Page 514 Ecology Today: Connecting the Concepts......Page 518 Selecting on Life Histories with Commercial Fishing......Page 519 Summary of Chapter Concepts......Page 524 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 526 Graphing the Data: Lizard Offspring Number Versus Offspring Mass 1......Page 527 The Sex Life of Honeybees......Page 528 Asexual Reproduction......Page 532 Costs of Sexual Reproduction......Page 535 Benefits of Sexual Reproduction......Page 537 9.2 Organisms Can Evolve as Separate Sexes or as Hermaphrodites......Page 544 Comparing Strategies......Page 545 Selfing versus Outcrossing of Hermaphrodites......Page 547 Mixed Mating Strategies......Page 548 Mechanisms of Sex Determination......Page 550 Offspring Sex Ratio......Page 553 Analyzing Ecology: Frequency-Dependent Selection......Page 558 9.4 Mating Systems Describe the Pattern of Mating Between Males and Females......Page 562 Polygamy......Page 563 Monogamy......Page 564 Sexual Dimorphism......Page 568 The Evolution of Female Choice......Page 571 The Handicap Principle......Page 574 Sexual Conflict......Page 576 Ecology Today: Applying the Concepts......Page 577 Male-Hating Microbes......Page 578 Summary of Chapter Concepts......Page 582 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 584 Graphing the Data: Frequency-Dependent Selection......Page 585 The Life of a Fungus Farmer......Page 586 Benefits of Living in Groups......Page 591 Costs of Living in Groups......Page 595 Territories......Page 599 Dominance Hierarchies......Page 600 The Types of Social Interactions......Page 602 Altruism and Kin Selection......Page 604 Analyzing Ecology: Calculating Inclusive Fitness......Page 609 10.3 Eusocial Species Take Social Interactions to the Extreme......Page 611 Eusociality in Ants, Bees, and Wasps......Page 612 Eusociality in Other Species......Page 615 Ecology Today: Applying the Concepts......Page 617 Hen-Pecked Chickens......Page 618 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 623 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 625 Graphing the Data: How Living In Groups Affects Predation Risk......Page 626 Part III: Populations......Page 627 Bringing Back the Mountain Boomer......Page 628 Determining Suitable Habitats......Page 634 Ecological Niche Modeling......Page 638 Habitat Suitability and Global Warming......Page 641 Abundance......Page 644 Density......Page 645 Dispersion......Page 646 Dispersal......Page 649 Quantifying the Location and Number of Individuals......Page 651 Analyzing Ecology: Mark-Recapture Surveys......Page 654 Quantifying the Dispersal of Individuals......Page 655 Population Abundance and Geographic Range......Page 659 Population Density and Adult Body Size......Page 661 Dispersal Limitation......Page 663 Habitat Corridors......Page 664 The Ideal Free Distribution Among Habitats......Page 670 Conceptual Models of Spatial Structure......Page 674 Ecology Today: Applying the Concepts......Page 676 The Invasion of the Emerald Ash Borer......Page 677 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 682 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 684 Graphing the Data: An Ideal Free Distribution......Page 685 Putting Nature on Birth Control......Page 686 The Exponential Growth Model......Page 691 The Geometric Growth Model......Page 693 Comparing the Exponential and Geometric Growth Models......Page 695 Population Doubling Time......Page 697 Density-Independent Factors......Page 699 Density-Dependent Factors......Page 701 Positive Density Dependence......Page 707 The Logistic Growth Model......Page 711 Predicting Human Population Growth with the Logistic Equation......Page 715 Age Structure......Page 718 Survivorship Curves......Page 720 Life Tables......Page 721 Analyzing Ecology: Calculating Life Table Values......Page 728 Ecology Today: Applying the Concepts......Page 733 Saving the Sea Turtles......Page 734 Summary of Chapter Concepts......Page 738 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 740 Graphing the Data: Survivorship Curves......Page 741 Monitoring Moose in Michigan......Page 742 13.1 Populations Fluctuate Naturally over Time......Page 747 Fluctuations in Age Structure......Page 749 Overshoots and Die-Offs......Page 752 13.2 Density Dependence with Time Delays Can Cause Population Size to Be Inherently Cyclic......Page 756 The Cycling of Populations Around Their Carrying Capacities......Page 758 Delayed Density Dependence......Page 759 Population Sizes Cycle in Laboratory Populations......Page 763 Analyzing Ecology: Delayed Density Dependence in the Flixweed......Page 765 Extinction in Small Populations......Page 769 Extinction Due to Variation in Population Growth Rates......Page 770 The Fragmented Nature of Habitats......Page 774 The Basic Model of Metapopulation Dynamics......Page 777 Observing Metapopulation Dynamics in Nature......Page 778 The Importance of Patch Size and Patch Isolation......Page 779 Ecology Today: Applying the Concepts......Page 782 The Recovery of the Black-Footed Ferret......Page 783 Summary of Chapter Concepts......Page 788 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 790 Graphing the Data: Exploring the Equilibrium of the Basic Metapopulation Model......Page 791 Part IV: Species Interactions......Page 792 A Century-Long Mystery of the Lynx and the Hare......Page 793 Predators......Page 798 Herbivores......Page 802 14.2 Populations of Predators and Prey Fluctuate in Regular Cycles......Page 808 Creating Predator–Prey Cycles in the Laboratory......Page 809 Mathematical Models of Predator–Prey Cycles......Page 811 Functional and Numerical Responses......Page 817 Defenses Against Predators......Page 823 Analyzing Ecology: Understanding Statistical Significance......Page 833 Defenses Against Herbivores......Page 836 The Trouble with Cats and Rabbits......Page 839 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 845 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 846 Graphing the Data: The Functional Response of Wolves......Page 847 The Life of Zombies......Page 848 15.1 Many Different Types of Parasites Affect the Abundance of Host Species......Page 853 Ectoparasites......Page 854 Endoparasites......Page 856 Emerging Infectious Diseases......Page 867 Mechanisms of Parasite Transmission......Page 871 Jumping Between Species......Page 873 Reservoir Species......Page 874 The Host’s Immune System......Page 875 Population Fluctuations in Nature......Page 877 Modeling Parasite and Host Populations......Page 879 Parasite Adaptations......Page 884 Host Adaptations......Page 888 Analyzing Ecology: Comparing Two Groups with a t-Test......Page 889 Coevolution......Page 892 Of Mice And Men . . . And Lyme Disease......Page 895 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 901 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 903 Graphing the Data: Time Series Data......Page 904 Trying to Catch Up to Garlic Mustard......Page 905 The Role of Resources......Page 909 The Competitive Exclusion Principle......Page 916 Competition for a Single Resource......Page 923 Competition for Multiple Resources......Page 931 Abiotic Conditions......Page 933 Disturbances......Page 935 Predation and Herbivory......Page 936 Interference Competition: Aggressive Interactions......Page 941 Interference Competition: Allelopathy......Page 942 Apparent Competition......Page 945 Analyzing Ecology: Chi-Square Tests......Page 948 Finding the Forest in the Ferns......Page 951 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 957 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 959 Graphing the Data: Competition for a Shared Resource......Page 960 Bathrooms with Benefits......Page 961 17.1 Mutualisms for Resource Acquisition......Page 965 Resource Acquisition in Plants......Page 967 Resource Acquisition in Animals......Page 970 Plant Defense......Page 974 Animal Defense......Page 978 Pollination......Page 983 Seed Dispersal......Page 986 Dealing with Cheaters in Mutualisms......Page 989 Effects on Species Distributions......Page 993 Analyzing Ecology: Comparing Two Groups of Data That Do Not Have Normal Distributions......Page 996 Mutualism’s Effects on Communities......Page 998 Mutualism’s Effects on Ecosystem Function......Page 1001 Dealing with the Death of Dispersers......Page 1005 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1011 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1013 Graphing the Data: Ecosystem Function of Fungi......Page 1014 Part V: Communities and Ecosystems......Page 1015 Pollinating the “Food of the Gods”......Page 1016 Community Zonation......Page 1020 Categorizing Communities......Page 1022 Ecotones......Page 1023 Communities with Interdependent versus Independent Species Distributions......Page 1027 Patterns of Abundance Among Species......Page 1033 Rank-Abundance Curves......Page 1035 Resources......Page 1038 Analyzing Ecology: Calculating Species Diversity......Page 1039 Keystone Species......Page 1045 Disturbances......Page 1050 18.4 Communities Are Organized into Food Webs......Page 1053 Direct versus Indirect Effects......Page 1054 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Effects......Page 1062 Community Stability......Page 1065 Alternative Stable States......Page 1067 Lethal Effects of Pesticides at Nonlethal Concentrations......Page 1070 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1076 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1079 Graphing the Data: Log-Normal Distributions and Rank-Abundance Curves......Page 1080 Retreating Glaciers in Alaska......Page 1081 Observing Succession......Page 1085 Succession in Terrestrial Environments......Page 1090 Succession in Aquatic Environments......Page 1097 Change in Species Diversity......Page 1101 Traits of Early- versus Late-Succession Species......Page 1104 Analyzing Ecology: Quantifying Community Similarity......Page 1105 Facilitation, Inhibition, and Tolerance......Page 1107 Tests for the Mechanisms of Succession......Page 1110 Changes in Climax Communities over Time......Page 1117 Transient Climaxes......Page 1119 Creating Gaps in a Climax Community......Page 1120 Climax Communities Under Extreme Environmental Conditions......Page 1121 Promoting Succession on a Strip Mine......Page 1123 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1128 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1130 Graphing the Data: Species Richness at Glacier Bay......Page 1131 Worming Your Way into an Ecosystem......Page 1132 Primary Productivity......Page 1137 Measuring Primary Productivity......Page 1139 Secondary Production......Page 1145 Drivers of Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 1148 Drivers of Productivity in Aquatic Ecosystems......Page 1153 Trophic Pyramids......Page 1159 The Efficiencies of Energy Transfers......Page 1162 Analyzing Ecology: Quantifying Trophic Efficiencies......Page 1168 Residence Times......Page 1169 Stoichiometry......Page 1171 Feeding an Ocean of Whales......Page 1174 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1179 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1181 Graphing the Data: NPP Versus the Total Primary Productivity of Ecosystems......Page 1182 Living in a Dead Zone......Page 1184 The Hydrologic Cycle......Page 1189 Human Impacts on the Hydrologic Cycle......Page 1191 The Carbon Cycle......Page 1195 Human Impacts on the Carbon Cycle......Page 1197 The Nitrogen Cycle......Page 1201 Human Impacts on the Nitrogen Cycle......Page 1204 The Phosphorus Cycle......Page 1208 Human Impacts on the Phosphorus Cycle......Page 1210 The Importance of Weathering......Page 1212 The Breakdown of Organic Matter......Page 1215 Analyzing Ecology: Calculating Decomposition Rates of Leaves......Page 1220 Decomposition Rates Among Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 1221 Allochthonous Inputs to Streams and Wetlands......Page 1223 Stratification of Lakes and Oceans......Page 1225 Nutrient Cycling in New Hampshire......Page 1227 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1232 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1235 Graphing the Data: The Decomposition of Organic Matter......Page 1236 Part VI: Global Ecology......Page 1237 Can We Have Too Much Biodiversity?......Page 1238 Causes of Habitat Heterogeneity......Page 1242 Local and Regional Species Diversity......Page 1246 Species–Area Relationships......Page 1249 Habitat Fragmentation......Page 1252 Analyzing Ecology: Estimating the Number of Species in an Area......Page 1256 The Evidence......Page 1263 The Theory......Page 1266 Applying the Theory to the Design of Nature Reserves......Page 1271 Patterns of Diversity......Page 1274 Processes that Underlie Patterns of Diversity......Page 1276 Continental Drift......Page 1282 Biogeographic Regions......Page 1284 Historic Climate Change......Page 1286 Taking a Long Walk for Conservation......Page 1288 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1293 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1295 Graphing the Data: Species Accumulation Curves......Page 1296 Protecting Hotspots of Biodiversity......Page 1297 Instrumental Values......Page 1302 Intrinsic Values......Page 1306 Background Extinction Rates......Page 1307 A Possible Sixth Mass Extinction......Page 1309 Global Declines in Species Diversity......Page 1310 Global Declines in Genetic Diversity......Page 1315 Habitat Loss......Page 1320 Overharvesting......Page 1323 Introduced Species......Page 1329 Pollution......Page 1331 Global Climate Change......Page 1334 Analyzing Ecology: Contaminant Half-Lives......Page 1337 Habitat Protection......Page 1340 Reduced Harvesting......Page 1344 Species Reintroductions......Page 1345 Returning Wolves to Yellowstone......Page 1347 Summary of Learning Objectives......Page 1354 Critical Thinking Questions......Page 1356 Graphing the Data: Stacked Bar Graphs......Page 1357 Reading Graphs......Page 1358 Statistical Tables......Page 1375 Answers to “Analyzing Ecology” and “Graphing the Data”......Page 1379 Glossary......Page 1420 A......Page 1469 B......Page 1474 C......Page 1478 D......Page 1485 E......Page 1488 F......Page 1494 G......Page 1497 H......Page 1500 I......Page 1504 J......Page 1506 L......Page 1507 M......Page 1510 N......Page 1514 O......Page 1516 P......Page 1518 R......Page 1528 S......Page 1531 T......Page 1542 U......Page 1545 W......Page 1546 X......Page 1548 Z......Page 1549 Back Cover......Page 1550